
Class. 
Book.. 



,Mqg 



Copyright^ 



jj 



CjQEXRIGHT DEPOSIT 




A Rock-Cut Temple or Shrine at Petra, in Ancient Edom 

Petra was the chief station on the great caravan route from Babylonia to Gaza and the 
cities of Phoenicia. (Photograph by Franklin E. Hoskins and Philip Van Ness Myers) 

SA 



A SHORT HISTORY OF 
ANCIENT TIMES 



BY 



PHILIP VAN NESS MYERS 

HONORARY LECTURER IN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI 

AUTHOR OF "GENERAL HISTORY," "MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN 

HISTORY," "HISTORY AS PAST ETHICS," ETC. 



REVISED EDITION 




GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS ■ SAN FRANCISCO 



COPYRIGHT, 1889, 1906, 1917, 1921, 1922, BY PHILIP VAX NESS MYERS 

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



822.2 



S> 












*> 



Cbe gtftenanm 3&tte* 

GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 

MAY -3 1922 
§)C!.A659944 



PREFACE 

The present volume consists of the first half of my second re- 
vised " General History," with merely such changes in a few 
matters of detail as were necessary in order to make the book inde- 
pendent of the last half of that work, which part is to be issued as 
a separate volume under the title of " A Short History of Mediaeval 

and Modern Times." 

P. V. N. M. 
College Hill, Cincinnati 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

List of Maps xi 

CHAPTER 

I. General Introduction: Prehistoric Times .... i 

DIVISION' I. THE EASTERN NATIONS 

II. Races and Groups of Peoples 12 

III. Ancient Egypt 15 

I. Political History ... 15 

II. Religion, Arts, and General Culture 18 

IV. Babylonia and Assyria . . 24 

I. The Early City-Kingdoms of Babylonia and the Old 

Babylonian Empire 24 

II. The Assyrian Empire 29 

III. The Chaldean or New Babylonian Empire (625-38 B.C.) 33 

V. The Hebrews 35 

VI. The Phoenicians 39 

VII. The Persian Empire (558-330 b.c.) 42 

VIII. The East Asian Peoples 47 

I. India 47 

, II. China 49 

DIVISION II. GREECE 

IX. The Land and the People 5 2 

, X. Greek Legends; the /Egean Civilization 57 

XI. The Heritage of the Historic Greeks 62 

XII. The Growth of Sparta 69 

XIII. The Age of Colonization and of Tyrannies .... 73 

I. The Age of Colonization (about 750-600 B.C.) ... 73 

II. The Tyrannies (about 650-500 B.C.) 77 

sa vii 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIV. The History of Athens up to the Persian Wars. 79 

XV. The Persian Wars (500-479 b.c.) 85 

XVI. The Athenian Empire 92 

XVII. The Peloponnesian War; the Spartan and the 

Theban Supremacy 98 

I. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) . . . . 98 

II. The Spartan and the Theban Supremacy .... 105 

XVIII. Alexander the Great (336-323 b.c.) 109 

XIX. The Gr/eco-Oriental World from the Death of 
Alexander to the Conquest of Greece by the 

Romans (323-146 b.c.) . 115 

XX. Greek Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting . 119 

I. Architecture 119 

II. Sculpture and Painting 1 23 

XXI. Greek Literature 127 

XXII. Greek Philosophy and Science 134 

XXIII. Social Life of the Greeks 141 

DIVISION III. ROME 

XXIV. Italy and its Early Inhabitants 146 

XXV. Roman Institutions; Rome under the Kings . . 150 

I. Society and Government 150 

II. Religion 154 

III. Rome under the Kings (legendary date 753-509 B.C.) 157 

XXVI. The Early Republic ; Plebeians become Citizens 

with Full Rights (509-367 b.c.) . . . . . . 159 

XXVII. The Conquest and Unification of Italy (367- 

264 b. c.) 1 66 

XXVIII. Expansion of Rome beyond the Peninsula . . . 172 

I. The First Punic War (264-241 b.c.) 172 

II. The Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.) .... 174 

III. Expansion of Rome into the East 177 

IV. The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) 179 

SA 



CONTENTS ix 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXIX. The Last Century of the Republic (133-31 B.C.) 181 
XXX. The Establishment of the Empire and the Prin- 

cipate of Augustus Cesar (31 b. c.-a.d. 14) . . 200 
XXXI. From Tiberius to the Accession of Diocletian 

(a.d. 14-284) 206 

XXXII. Diocletian and Constantine the Great . . . 215 

I. The Reign of Diocletian (a.d. 284-305) .... 215 

II. Reign of Constantine the Great (a. I). 306-337) . 218 

XXXIII. The Last Century of the Empire in the West 

(a.d. 376-476) 222 

XXXIV. Architecture, Literature, Law, and Social Life 

among the Romans 233 

I. Architecture and Engineering 233 

II. Literature, Philosophy, and Law 235 

III. Social Life 239 

DIVISION IV. THE ROMANO- GERM AN OR TRANSITION AGE 

(A.D. 476-80O) 

XXXV. The Barbarian Kingdoms 245 

XXXVI. The Church and its Institutions 249 

I. The Conversion of the Barbarians 249 

II. The Rise of Monasticism 252 

III. The Rise of the Papacy 254 

XXXVII. The Fusion of Latin and Teuton 259 

XXXVIII. The Roman Empire in the East 263 

XXXIX. The Rise of Islam 266 

XL. Charlemagne and the Restoration of the 

Empire in the West 272 

APPENDIX i 

INDEX vii 



SA 



LIST OF MAPS 



COLORED MAPS 

Based in the main on Kiepert, Schrader, Droysen, Spruner-Sieglin, Poole, and 
Freeman. Many of the maps have been so modified by additions and omissions that 
as they here appear they are practically new charts. 

PAGE 

Ancient Egypt 14 

Assyrian Empire, about 660 b. c 28 

The Persian Empire at its Greatest Extent, about 500 B.C. 44 

General Reference Map of Ancient Greece 54 

Greece and the Greek Colonies 74 

Empire of Alexander the Great, about 323 B.c ". 110 

Italy before the Growth of the Roman Empire 146 

The Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent (under Trajan, a.d. 98- 117) 210 
Map showing Barbarian Inroads on the Fall of the Roman Empire 

(movements shown down to a.d. 477) 226 

The Saracen Empire, about a.d. 750 272 

The Western Empire as divided at Verdun, a.d. 843 276 



SKETCH MAPS 

The World according to Homer 64 

The Seven Hills of Rome 157 

The Roman Domain and the Latin Confederacy in the Time of the 

Early Republic, about 450 B.c 1 62 

The Barbarian Kingdoms 250 

The Roman Empire under Justinian 269 



A SHORT HISTORY OF ANCIENT TIMES 



A SHORT HISTORY OF 
ANCIENT TIMES 

CHAPTER I 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION: PREHISTORIC TIMES 

1. The Prehistoric and the Historic Age. The immensely 
long periods of human life which lie back of the time when man 
began to keep written or graven records of events form what is 
called the Prehistoric Age. The comparatively few centuries of 
human experience made known to us through such records com- 
prise the Historic Age. For Egypt the historic period begins about 
4000 B.C.; for the Mediterranean regions of Europe it opens about 
1000 B.C.; for the countries of central and northern Europe, speak- 
ing broadly, not until about the beginning of our era ; and for the 
New World only a little over four hundred years ago. 

2. How we Learn about Prehistoric Man. A knowledge of 
what manner of man prehistoric man was and what he did is indis- 
pensable to the historical student ; for the dim prehistoric ages of 
human life form the childhood of the race — and the man cannot 
be understood without at least some knowledge of the child. 

But how, in the absence of written records, are we to find out 
anything about prehistoric man? In many ways we are able to 
learn much about him. First, by studying the life of present-day 
backward races ; for what they now are, the great races of history, 
we have reason to believe, were in their prehistoric age. 

Again, the men who lived before the dawn of history left behind 
them many things which witness as to what manner of men they 
were. In ancient gravel beds along the streams where they fished 
or hunted, in the caves which afforded them shelter, in the refuse 
heaps (kitchen middens) on the sites of their villages or camping 
places, or in the graves where they laid away their dead, we find 



2 GENERAL INTRODUCTION [§3 

great quantities of tools and weapons and other articles shaped 
by their hands. 1 From these various things we learn what skill 
these early men had acquired as tool makers, what degree of cul- 
ture they had attained, and something of their conception of the 
life in the hereafter. 

3. Divisions of Prehistoric Times. The long period of pre- 
historic times is divided into different ages, or stages of culture, 
which are named from the material which man used in the manu- 
facture of his weapons and tools. The earliest epoch is known as 
the Old Stone Age ; the following one as the New Stone Age ; and 
the later period as the Age of Metals. The division lines between 
these ages are not sharply drawn. In most countries the epochs 
run into and overlap one another, just as in modern times the Age 
of Steam runs into and overlaps the Age of Electricity. 

4. The Old Stone Age. In the Old Stone Age man's chief 
implements were usually made of stone, and especially of chipped 
flints, though bones, horns, tusks, and other materials were also 
used in their manufacture. These rude implements and weapons 
of his, found mostly in river gravel beds and in caves, are the 
very oldest things in existence which we know positively to have 
been shaped by human hands. 

The man of the Old Stone Age in Europe saw the retreating 
glaciers of the great Ice Age, of which geology tells us. Among 
the animals which lived with him on that continent (we know 
most of early man there) were the woolly-haired mammoth, the 
bison, the wild ox, the cave bear, the rhinoceros, the wild horse, 
and the reindeer — species which are no longer found in the regions 
where primitive man hunted them. As the climate and the vege- 
tation changed, some of these animals became extinct, while others 
of the cold-loving species retreated up the mountains or migrated 
toward the north. 

What we know of man of the Old Stone Age may be summed up 
as follows : he was a hunter and fisher ; his habitation was often 

l Besides these material things that can be seen and handled, there are many im- 
material things — as, for instance, language, which is as full of human memories as the 
rocks are of fossils — that light up for us the dim ages before history. 



§4] 



THE OLD STONE AGE 



merely a cave or a rock shelter ; his implements were in the main 
roughly shaped flints ; he had no domestic animals save possibly 
the dog ; he was ignorant of the arts of spinning and weaving, and 
practically also of the art of making pottery. 1 

The length of the Old Stone Age no one knows; we do not 
attempt to reckon its duration by years or by centuries, but only 




Fig. i. Implements of the Old Stone Age 

No. /, the core of a flint nodule, was the earliest and the characteristic tool and weapon 
of man of the Old Stone Age. It served a variety of purposes, and was used without a 
handle, being clutched with the hand (No. 9), and hence is called the hand-ax or fist-ax. 
No 2 is a flint flake struck from a nodule. No. 8 (a harpoon-point) tells us that the man 
of this age was a fisher as well as a hunter. From No. 6 (a bone needle) we may infer 
that he made clothing of skins, for since he had not yet learned the art of weaving (the 
spindle-whorl does not appear till the next epoch ; see Fig. 5 and explanatory note), the 
material of which he made clothing could hardly have been anything else than the skins 
of animals killed in the chase. That skins were carefully prepared is evidenced by the 
scraper (Nos. 4, //), an implement used in dressing hides. No. 7 (an engraving-tool) 
tells us that art had its beginnings in the Old Stone Age 

by geologic ages. We do know, however, that the long, slow ages 
did not pass away without some progress having been made by 
primeval man, which assures us that, though so lowly a creature, 
he was endowed with the capacity for growth and improvement. 
Before the end of the period he had acquired wonderful skill in 
the chipping of flint points and blades ; he had learned the use of 
fire, as we know from the traces of fire found in the places where 

1 The Australians and New Zealanders when first discovered were in the Old Stone 
Age stage of culture ; the Tasmanians had not yet reached it. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 



[§4 




Fig, 



2. Engraving of a Mammoth on 
the Fragment of a Tusk 
(Old Stone Age) 



he made his abode ; and he had probably invented the bow and 
arrow, as we find this weapon in very general use at the opening 

of the following epoch. 
This important invention 
gave man what was to be 
one of his chief weapons 
in the chase and in war 
for thousands of years — 
down to and even after 
the invention of fire- 
arms late in the historic 
period. 

But most prophetic of the great future of this savage or semi- 
savage cave man of the Old Stone Age was the fine artistic talent 
that some tribes or races of the period possessed ; for, strange as it 
may seem, among the men of this epoch there were some amazingly 
good artists. Besides numer- 
ous specimens of his draw- 
ings and carvings of animals, 
chiefly on bone and ivory, 
which have been found from 
time to time during the last 
half century and more, there 
have recently been discov- 
ered many large drawings 
and paintings on the walls of 
various grottoes in southern 
France and northern Spain. 1 These wonderful pictures are mainly 
representations of animals. The species most often depicted are 
the bison, the horse, the wild ox, the reindeer, and the mammoth. 

l The first of these wall paintings were discovered in 1879, but that they really were 
of the immense age claimed for them was not established beyond all doubt until 1902. 
The pictures are generally found in the depths of caverns where not a ray of the light 
of day ever enters. They were made by the light of lamps fed with the fat of animals. 
It is almost certain that they had a magical purpose, that is, were made in the belief that 
by a species of magic they would cause an increase of the game animals represented, or 
would render them a sure prey in the chase. 




Fig. 3. Wall Picture from the 

Cavern of Font-de-Gaume, France 

(After Brenil) 




Fig. 4. Specimens of the Art of the European Cave Man 

These remarkable animal forms were painted, in colors still well preserved, on the 
walls of French and Spanish caverns, by a race of hunter-artists of the Old Stone Age. 
They were drawn probably at least ten or fifteen thousand years before the Pyramids 

were erected 



SA 



§5] 



THE NEW STONE AGE 



This astonishing art of the European cave men shows that primi- 
tive man, probably because he is a hunter and lives so close to the 
wild life around him, often has a keener eye for animal forms 
and movements than the artists of more advanced races. The 
history of art (sculpture, engraving, and painting) must hereafter 
begin with the works of these artist hunters of the Old Stone Age. 




Fig. 5. Implements of the New Stone Age 

These tools and weapons mark a great advance over the chipped flints of the' Old 
Stone Age (Fig. 1). They embody the results of thousands (perhaps tens of thousands) 
of years of human experience and invention, and mark the first steps in human progress. 
Nos. 1-3 and 7-70 show how after unmeasured ages man had learned to increase the 
effectiveness of his tools and weapons by grinding them smooth and sharp, and by 
fitting handles to them. No. j records the incoming of the art of making pottery — one 
of the most important industrial arts prior to the Age of Iron. No. 6 (a spindle-whorl 
of stone or of hardened clay used as a weight in twisting thread) informs us that man 
had learned the civilizing arts of spinning and weaving 



5. The New Stone Age. The Old Stone Age was followed by 
the New. Chipped or hammered stone implements still continued 
to be used, but what characterizes this period was the use of ground 
or polished implements. Man had learned the art of grinding his 
tools and weapons to a sharp edge with sand on a grinding stone. 1 
To his ax he had also learned to attach a handle, which made it 
a vastly more effective implement (Fig. 5). 



1 The North American Indians were in this stage of culture at the time of the dis- 
covery of the New World. The Egyptians and Babylonians were just emerging from it 
when they first appeared in history. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 



[§6 







Besides these improvements in his tools and weapons, the man 
of the New Stone Age had made other great advances beyond the 
man of the Old Stone Age. He had learned to till the soil ; he had 
learned to make fine pottery, to spin, and to weave ; he had do- 
mesticated various wild animals ; he built houses, often on piles on 
the margins of lakes and morasses ; and 
he buried his dead in such a manner — 
with accompanying gifts (Fig. 6) — as 
to show that he had a firm belief in a 
future life. 1 

6. The Age of Metals. Finally the 
long ages of stone passed into the Age 
of Metals. This age falls into three 
subdivisions — the Age of Copper, the 
Age of Bronze, and the Age of Iron. 
Some peoples, like the African negroes, 
passed directly from the use of stone to 
the use of iron ; but in most of the coun- 
tries of the Orient and of Europe the 
three metals came into use one after the 
other and in the order named. Speaking 
broadly, we may say that the Age of 
Metals began for the more advanced 
peoples of the ancient world between 
4000 and 3000 B.C. 

The history of metals has been de- 
clared to be the history of civilization. 
Indeed, it would be almost impossible to overestimate their 
importance to man. Man could do very little with stone imple- 
ments compared with what he could do with metal implements. 
It was a great labor for primitive man, even with the aid of 
fire, to fell a tree with a stone ax and to hollow out the trunk 
for a boat. He was hampered in all his tasks by the rudeness of 

1 Recent discoveries have revealed traces of this belief even before the close of the 
Old Stone Age. Several cases of burial have been found with rich grave outfits of flint 
implements and weapons, which point unmistakably to a belief in a life after death. 



Fig. 6. A Prehistoric 

Egyptian Tomb 

(After/, de Morgan) 

Primitive man's belief in a 
future life led him to place 
in the grave of the deceased 
weapons, implements, food, 
and articles of personal adorn- 
ment for use in the other 
world. Outfits of this kind 
found in prehistoric graves 
are an important source of 
our knowledge of man before 
recorded history begins 



§7] 



THE ORIGIN OF THE USE OF FIRE 



his tools. It was only as the bearer of metal implements and 
weapons that he began really to subdue the earth and to get 
dominion over nature. All the higher cultures of the ancient world 
with which history begins were based on the knowledge and. use 
of metals. 

7. The Origin of the Use of Fire. That fire was known to 
man of the Old Stone Age we learn, as already noted, from the 




Fig. 7. Primitive Methods of making Fire. (After Tylor) 

Doubtless the discovery that fire could be produced by friction came about through 
the operation of the primitive toolmaker. The processes of smoothing, polishing, and 
grooving softwood implements, and of boring holes in them with pieces of harder wood, 
could hardly fail of revealing the secret. The character of the fire-making devices of 
present-day savages point the way of the discovery 



traces of it discovered in the caves and rock shelters which were 
his abode. No people has ever been found so low in the scale of 
culture as to be without it. 

As to the way in which early man came into possession of fire, 
we have no knowledge. Possibly he kindled his first fire from a 
glowing lava stream or from some burning tree trunk set aflame by 
the lightning. 1 However this may be, he had in the earliest times 
learned to produce the vital spark by means of friction. The fire 
borer, according to Tylor, is among the oldest of human inventions. 
Since the awakening of the spark was difficult, the fire once alight 
was carefully fed so that it should not go out. The duty of 
watching the flame naturally fell to the old women or to the 
daughters of the community, to which custom may be traced the 
origin of such institutions as that among the Romans of the six 

1 Fires thus lighted are surprisingly numerous. During the year 1914 there were 
over 2000 fires started by lightning in the national forests of the United States. 



8 GENERAL INTRODUCTION [§ 8 

vestal virgin priestesses, the keepers of the sacred fire which flamed 
on the common household hearth in the temple of the goddess 
Vesta (sect. 237). 

Only gradually did primeval man learn the various properties 
of fire and discover the different uses to which it might be put, 
just as historic man has learned only gradually the possible uses 
of electricity. By some happy accident or discovery he learned 
that it would harden clay, and he became a potter ; that it would 
smelt ores, and he became a worker in metals ; and that it would 
aid him in a hundred other ways. "Fire," says Joly, "presided 
at the birth of nearly every art, or quickened its progress." The 
place it holds in the development of the family, of religion, and 
of the industrial arts is revealed by these three significant words — 
" the hearth, the altar, the forge." No other agent has contributed 
more to the progress of civilization. Indeed, it is difficult to con- 
ceive how without fire primitive man could ever have emerged 
from the Age of Stone. ' 

8. The Domestication of Animals. "When we visit a farm at 
the present day and observe the friendly nature of the life which 
goes on there, — the horse proudly and obediently bending his neck 
to his yoke ; the cow offering her streaming udder to the milkmaid ; 
the woolly flock going forth to the field, accompanied by their 
trusty protector, the dog, who comes fawning to his master, — 
this familiar intercourse between man and beast seems so natural 
that it is scarcely conceivable that things may once have been 
different. And yet in the picture we see only the final result of 
thousands and thousands of years of the work of civilization, the 
enormous importance of which simply escapes our notice because 
it is by everyday wonders- that our amazement is least excited." 1 

The most of this work of inducing the animals of the fields and 
woods to become, as it were, members or dependents of the human 
family, to enter into a league of friendship with man and to be- 
come his helpers, was done by prehistoric man. When man appears 
in history, he appears surrounded by almost all the domestic 
animals known to us today. The dog was already his faithful 

1 Schrader, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples (1890), p. 259. 



§ 9] THE DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS 9 

companion — and probably the first won from among the wild 
creatures ; the sheep, the cow, and the goat shared his shelter 
with him. 

The domestication of animals had such a profound effect upon 
human life and occupation that it marks the opening of a new 
epoch in history. The hunter became a shepherd, and the hunting 
stage in culture gave place to the pastoral. 1 

9. The Domestication of Plants. Long before the dawn of 
history those peoples of the Old World who were to play great 
parts in early historic times had advanced from the pastoral to 
the agricultural stage of culture. Just as the step from the hunting 
to the pastoral stage had been taken with the aid of a few of the 
most social species of animals, so had this second upward step, 
from the pastoral to the agricultural stage, been taken by means 
of the domestication of a few of the innumerable species of the 
seed grasses and plants growing wild in field and wood. 

Wheat and barley, two of the most important of the cereals, 
were probably first domesticated somewhere in Asia, and from 
there carried over Europe. These grains, together with oats and 
rice, have been, in the words of Tylor, " the mainstay of human 
life and the great moving power of civilization." 

The domestication of plants and the art of tilling the soil ef- 
fected a great revolution in prehistoric society. The wandering life 
of the hunter and the herder now gave way to a settled mode of 
existence. Cities were built, and within them began to be amassed 
those treasures, material and immaterial, which constitute the 
precious heirloom of humanity. This attachment to the soil of 
the hitherto roving clans and tribes meant also the beginning of 
political life. The cities were united into states and great king- 
doms were formed, and the political history of man began, as in 
the valleys of the Nile and the Euphrates. 

10. The Invention of Writing. Still another achievement of 
prehistoric man was the invention of writing. There are two kinds 
of writing, — picture writing and phonetic or sound writing. In 

1 It is of interest to note that most of the wild stocks whence have come our domestic 
animals are of Old World origin. 



io GENERAL INTRODUCTION [§ 10 

picture writing the characters are in the main rude pictures of 
material objects. This way of representing ideas seems natural to 
man. It is a form of writing that children love to use. 

In phonetic writing the symbols represent sounds of the human 
voice. There are three stages. In the first stage each picture 
or symbol stands for a whole word. In such a system as this there 
must of course be as many characters or signs as there are words 
in the language represented. In working out their system of 
writing the Chinese stuck fast at this point (sect. 77). 

In the second stage the symbols are used to represent syllables 
instead of words. This reduces at once the number of signs needed 
from many thousands to a few hundreds, since the words of any 
given language are formed by the combination of a comparatively 
small number of syllables. With between four and five hundred 
symbols the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, who used this 
form of writing, were able to represent all the words of their 
respective languages (sect. 36). 

While a collection of syllabic signs is a great improvement over 
a collection of word signs, still it is a clumsy instrument for 
expressing ideas, and the system requires still further simplifica- 
tion. This is done and the third and final step in developing a 
convenient system of writing is taken when the symbols are 
used to represent not syllables but elementary sounds of the 
human voice, of which there are only a few — a score or two 
— in any language. Then the symbols become true letters, a 
complete collection of which is called an alphabet, and the 
mode of writing alphabetic. This is the system of writing which 
we employ. 

What people invented the first alphabet is unknown; but as 
early as the ninth century B.C. we find several Semitic peoples in 
possession of a true alphabet. Through various agencies, particu- 
larly through the agency of trade and commerce, this alphabet 
was spread east and west and thus became the parent of all except 
one 1 of the alphabets employed by the peoples of the ancient 
world of history. 

1 See p. 27, n. i. 



§ 11] THE GREAT BEQUEST II 

With the invention of phonetic writing and the practice of 
keeping records, with names of actors and dates of events, the 
truly historic age for man begins. 

11. The Great Bequest. We of this twentieth century esteem 
ourselves fortunate in being the heirs of a noble heritage, the heirs 
of all the past. We are not used to thinking of the men of the 
first generation of historic times as also the heirs of a great legacy. 
But even the scanty review we have made of what was discovered 
and thought out by man during the long epochs before history 
began cannot fail to have impressed us with the fact that a vast 
bequest was made by prehistoric to historic man. 

If our hasty glance at those far-away times has done nothing 
more than this, then we shall never again regard history quite as 
may have been our wont. We shall see the story of man to be 
more wonderful than we once thought, the path which he has fol- 
lowed to be longer and more toilsome than we ever imagined. 
But our interest in the traveler will have been deepened through 
our knowing more of his origin, of his early hard and narrow life, 
and of his first painful steps in the path of civilization. We shall 
follow with greater concern and sympathy this wonderful being, 
child of earth and child of heaven, this heir of all the ages, as he 
journeys on and upward with his face toward the light. 

References. 1 Osborn, H. F., Men of the Old Stone Age (" The most impor- 
tant work on the evolution of our own species that has appeared since 
Darwin's ' Descent of Man.' " — Theodore Roosevelt). Sollas, W. J., Ancient 
Hunters. Hoernes, M., Primitive Man. Keary, C. F., The Dawn of History. 
Starr, F., Some First Steps in Human Progress. Tylor, E. B., Anthropology, 
chaps, iv, vii, " Language " and " Writing " ; Primitive Culture, 2 vols. Lub- 
bock, Sir J., Prehistoric Times. Mason, O. T., First Steps in Human Culture 
and The Origin of Invention. Davenport, E., Domesticated Animals and 
Plants. Shaler, N. S., Domesticated Animals. HOFFMANN, W. J., The Begin- 
nings of Writing. Clodd, E., The Stoiy of the Alphabet. Taylor, I., The 
Alphabet, 2 vols. Holbrook, F., Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers (juvenile). 
Frobenius, The Childhood of Man, chap, xxvii. 

1 For titles of Source Books containing selections from the original sources for the 
history of different periods and for Topics for Class Reports, see Appendix. 



DIVISION I. THE EASTERN NATIONS 

CHAPTER II 
RACES AND GROUPS OF PEOPLES 

12. Subdivisions of the Historic Age. We begin now our 
study of the Historic Age — a record of about six or seven thou- 
sand years. The story of historic times is usually divided into 
three parts — Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History. Ancient 
History begins, as already indicated, with the earliest peoples of 
which we can gain any certain knowledge through written records, 
and extends to the break-up of the Roman Empire in the West, 
in the fifth century of the Christian era. Mediaeval History em- 
braces the period, the so-called Middle Ages, about one thousand 
years in length, lying between the fall of Rome and the discovery 
of the New World by Columbus, a.d. 1492. Modern History 
commences with the close of the mediaeval period and extends to 
the present time. 1 It is Ancient History alone with which we 
shall be concerned in the present volume. 

13. The Races of Mankind in the Historic Period. Distinc- 
tions mainly in bodily characteristics, such as form, color, and 
features, divide the human species into many types or races, of 
which the three chief are known as the Black or Negro Race, the 
Yellow or Mongolian Race, and the White or Caucasian Race. 2 

1 It is thought preferable by some scholars to let the decisive beginning of the 
great Teutonic migration (a.d. 376), or the restoration of the Empire by Charlemagne 
(a.d. 800), mark the end of the period of Ancient History, and to call all after that 
Modern History. Some also prefer to date the beginning of the modern period from the 
capture of Constantinople by the Turks (a.d. 1453) ; while still others speak of it in a 
general way as commencing about the close of the fifteenth century, at which time there 
were many inventions and discoveries, and great movements in the intellectual world. 

2 The classification given is simply a convenient and practical one. It disregards 
various minor groups of uncertain ethnic relationship. 



§14] 



THE BLACK RACE 



13 



no 




But we must not suppose each of these three types to be sharply 
marked off from the others ; they shade into one another by in- 
sensible gradations. There is a great number of intermediate types 
or subraces. 

It is probable that the physical and mental differences of exist- 
ing races arose through their ancestors' having been subjected to 
different climatic influences and to different conditions of life 
through long periods of prehistoric time. There has been 
perceptible change in the great types of 
mankind during the historic period. The 
paintings upon the oldest Egyptian 
monuments show us that at the dawn of 
history the principal races were as dis- 
tinctly marked as now, each bearing its 
racial badge of color and features. 

14. The Black Race. Africa south of 
the Sahara is the true home of the typical 
folk (the negroes) of the Black Race, but 
we find them on all the other continents 
and on many of the islands of the seas, 
whither they have migrated or been 
carried as slaves by the stronger races. 

15. The Yellow or Mongolian Race. Eastern and northern 
Asia is the central seat of the Mongolian Race. Many of the 
Mongolian tribes are wandering herdsmen, who roam over the 
vast Asian plains north of the great ranges of the Himalayas; 
their leading part in history has been to harass peoples of 
settled habits. 

But the most important peoples of this type are the Japanese 
and the Chinese. The latter constitute probably a fifth or more 
of the entire population of the earth. Already in times very remote 
this people had developed a civilization quite advanced on various 
lines, but having reached a certain stage in culture they did not 
continue to make so marked a progress. Not until recent times 
did either the Chinese or the Japanese come to play a real part 
in world history. 



Fig. 8. Negro Captives 

(From the monuments of 

Thebes) 

Illustrating the permanence of 
race characteristics 



14 RACES AND GROUPS OF PEOPLES [§ 16 

16. The White or Caucasian Race and its Three Groups. 
The so-called White or Caucasian Race embraces almost all of 
the historic nations. Its chief peoples fall into three groups — the 
Hamitic, the Semitic, and the Aryan or Indo-European. The mem- 
bers forming any one of these groups must not be looked upon 
as necessarily kindred in blood; the only certain bond uniting 
the peoples of each group is the bond of language. 

The ancient Egyptians were the most remarkable people of the 
Hamitic branch. In the gray dawn of history we discover them 
already settled in the valley of the Nile, and there erecting great 
monuments so faultless in construction as to render it certain 
that those who planned them had had long training in the art 
of building. 

The Semitic family includes among its chief peoples the ancient 
Babylonians and Assyrians, the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, and the 
Arabians. Most scholars regard Arabia as the original home of 
this family. It is interesting to note that the three great mono- 
theistic religions — the Hebrew, the Christian, and the Moham- 
medan — arose among peoples belonging to the Semitic family. 

The Aryan-speaking peoples form the most widely dispersed 
group of the White Race. They include the ancient Greeks and 
Romans, all the peoples of modern Europe (save the Basques, 
the Finns and Lapps, the Hungarians, and the Ottoman Turks), 
together with the Persians, the Hindus, and some other Asian 
peoples. 1 After what we may call the Semitic age it is the Aryan- 
speaking peoples that have borne the leading parts in the great 
drama of history. 

References. Ripley, W. Z., The Races of Europe. Keane, A. H., Ethnology 
and Man, Past and Present. Deniker, J., The Races of Man. Sergi, G., The 
Mediterranean Race. Ratzel, F., The History of Mankind, 2 vols. Keith, A., 
Ancient Types of Man. Brinton, D. G., Races and Peoples. Taylor, I., The 
Origin of the Aryans. Schrader, O., The Prehistoric Civilization of the 
Aryan Peoples. 

1 The kinship in speech of all these peoples is most plainly shown by the similar 
form and meaning of certain words in their different languages, as, for example, the 
word father, which occurs with but little change in several of the Aryan tongues 
(Sanscrit, pitri ; Persian, padar; Greek, irar-pp ■ ~LaXm, pater ; German, Vater), 



CHAPTER III 



ANCIENT EGYPT 




I. POLITICAL HISTORY 

17. Egypt and the Nile. The Egypt of history comprises the 
Delta of the Nile and the flood plains of its lower course. These 
rich lands were formed in past geologic ages from the silt brought 
down by the river in seasons of flood. The Delta was known to 
the ancients as Lower Egypt, while the valley proper, reaching 
from the head of the Delta to the First Cataract, a distance of 
six hundred miles, was called Upper Egypt. 

Through the same means by which Egypt was originally cre- 
ated is the land each year still renewed and fertilized ; hence an 
old Greek writer, in 
happy phrase, called 
the country " the gift 
of the Nile." Swollen 
by heavy tropical 
rains and the melt- 
ing snows of the 
mountains about its sources, the -Nile each year overflows its 
banks and on receding leaves on the fields a film of rich earth. 
In a few weeks after the sowing of the grain, the entire land, so 
recently a flooded plain, is a sea of verdure, which forms a striking 
contrast to the desert sands and barren hills that rim the valley. 

18. Climate and Products. The climate of Egypt is semi- 
tropical. The fruits of the tropics and the cereals of the temperate 
zone grow luxuriantly. From early times the land was the granary 
of the East. To it less favored countries, when stricken by famine, 
— a calamity so common in the East in regions dependent upon the 
rainfall, — looked for food, as did the families of Israel during 
drought and failure of crops in Palestine. 

x 5 



Fig. 9. Ploughing and Sowing 
(From a papyrus) 



i6 



ANCIENT EGYPT 



[§19 



19. The Pharaoh and the Dynasties. The rulers of historic 
Egypt bore the royal title or common name of Pharaoh. The 
Pharaohs that reigned in the country up to the conquest of 
Alexander the Great (332 b.c.) are grouped in thirty-one dynas- 
ties. The history of these dynasties covers more than half of the 
entire period of authentic history. Almost three thousand years 

of this history had passed 
before the opening of the 
historic age in Greece and 
Italy. 

20. The Fourth Dy- 
nasty (about 2900-2750 
B.C.); the Pyramid 
Builders. The Pharaohs 
of the Fourth Dynasty, 
who reigned at Memphis, 
are called the pyramid 
builders, because they 
built the largest of the 
pyramids. Khufu, the 
Cheops of the Greeks, was 
the most noted of these 
rulers. He constructed the 
Great Pyramid, at Gizeh, 
— "the greatest mass of 
masonry that has ever 
been put together by mor- 
tal man." 1 A recent fortunate discovery enables us now to look 
upon the face of this Khufu, one of the earliest and most renowned 
personages of the ancient world (Fig. 10). 

To some king of this same early family of pyramid builders is 
also ascribed, by some authorities, the wonderful sculpture of the 
gigantic human-headed Sphinx at the foot of the Great Pyramid — 
the largest statue in the world. 

1 This pyramid rises from a base covering 13 acres to a height of 450 feet. According 
to Herodotu.s, Cheops employed 100,000 men for twenty years in its erection. 




Fig. 10. Khufu, Builder of the Great 
Pyramid. (From Petrie's Abydos, Part II) 

Though only a minute figure in ivory, it shows 

a character of immense energy and will ; the 

face is an astonishing portrait to be expressed in 

a quarter of an inch. — Petrie 



§21] EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH DYNASTIES 17 

These sepulchral monuments, for the pyramids were the tombs 
of the Pharaohs who constructed them, and the great Sphinx are 
the most venerable memorials of the early world of culture that 
have been preserved to us. 

21. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties (about 1580— 
1205 B.C.). It is the deeds and architectural works of the 
Pharaohs of these two celebrated dynasties that have contributed 
largely to give Egypt her great name and place in history. The 
most famous ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty was Rameses II, the 
Sesostris of the Greeks. The chief of Rameses' wars were those 




Fig. 11. Brick-Making in Ancient Egypt. (From Thebes) 

against the Kheta, the Hittites of the Bible, who at this time were 
maintaining an extensive empire, embracing in the main the in- 
terior uplands of Asia Minor and northern Syria. 1 We find 
Rameses at last concluding with them a celebrated treaty of peace 
and alliance, in which the chief of the Hittites is formally recog- 
nized as in every respect the equal of the Pharaoh of Egypt. 
The meaning of this alliance was that the Pharaohs had met their 
peers in the princes of the Hittites, and that they could no longer 
hope to become masters of western Asia. 

It is the opinion of some scholars that this Rameses II was the 
oppressor of the children of Israel, the Pharaoh who "made their 
lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and in brick, and in all 
manner of service in the field," and that what is known as the 
Exodus took place in the reign of his successor. 

1 We know very little about this people, save that for several centuries they divided 
with Egypt and Assyria the dominion of western Asia. They had a system of writing, 
the key to which has not yet been discovered. 



18 ANCIENT EGYPT [§ 22 

22. The Last of the Native Pharaohs. Before the end of the 

Twenty-sixth Dynasty, about six hundred years before Christ, 
Egypt, her power having greatly declined, became tributary to 
Babylon, and a little later bowed beneath the Persian yoke. From 
about the middle of the fourth century B.C. to the present day no 
native prince has sat upon the throne of the Pharaohs. 

"The mission of Egypt among the nations was fulfilled; it had 
lit the torch of civilization in ages inconceivably remote, and had 
passed it on to other peoples of fhe West." 

II. RELIGION, ARTS, AND GENERAL CULTURE 

23. The Egyptian System of Writing. Perhaps the greatest 
achievement of the ancient Egyptians was the working out of a 
system of writing. More than four thousand years before Christ 



Fig. 12. Forms of Egyptian Writing 

The top line is hieroglyphic script ; the bottom line is the same text in hieratic 

they had developed a very curious and complex system, which 
was partly picture writing and partly alphabetic. 1 

The chief writing material used by the ancient Egyptians was 
the noted papyrus paper, manufactured from a reed which grew 
in the marshes and along the water channels of the Nile. From 
the Greek names of this Egyptian plant, byblos and papyrus, 
come our words Bible and paper. 

1 Just as we have two forms of letters, one for printing and another for writing, so 
the Egyptians employed three forms of script : the hieroglyphic, in which the pictures 
and symbols were carefully drawn — a form generally employed in monumental inscrip- 
tions ; the hieratic, a simplified form of the hieroglyphic, adapted to writing, and forming 
the greater part of the papyrus manuscripts ; and later a still simpler form developed 
from the hieratic, and called by the Greeks demotic, that is, the ordinary writing (from 
demos, "the people "). 




§24] THE ROSETTA STONE 19 

24. The Rosetta Stone and the Key to Egyptian Writing. 

The first key to the Egyptian writing was discovered by means 
of the Rosetta Stone, which was found by the French when they 
invaded Egypt in 1798. This precious relic, a heavy block of black 
basalt, is now in the British Museum. It holds an inscription in 
the Egyptian and the Greek language, which is written in three 
different forms of script. The chief credit of deciphering the 
Egyptian script and of opening up the 
long-sealed secrets of the Egyptian 
monuments is commonly allotted to the 
French scholar Champollion. 

25. The Egyptian Gods. Chief of 

the great Egyptian deities was the 

sun-god Ra (or Re), from whom the 

Pharaohs claimed descent. He was 

. , ... ,, , Fig. 13. The Rosetta 

imagined as sailing across the heavens o 

in a sacred bark on a celestial river, 

and at night returning to the east through subterranean water 

passages — an adventurous and danger-beset voyage. 

The good Osiris, a beloved deity of many attributes and many 

fables, was, it seems, at first worshiped as the spirit or god of 

vegetation, but later he came to be conceived of as judge and ruler 

in the realms of the dead. Set, the Typhon of Greek writers, was 

the Satan of later Egyptian mythology. Besides the greater gods 

there was a multitude of lesser deities, each district and village 

having its local god or gods. 

26. Animal Worship. The Egyptians believed some animals 
to be incarnations of a god descended from heaven. Thus a god 
was thought to animate the body of some particular bull, which 
might be known from certain spots or markings.' Upon the death 
of the sacred bull, or Apis, as he was called, the body was carefully 
embalmed and, amid funeral ceremonies of great expense and 
magnificence, laid away in a huge granite sarcophagus in the 
tomb of his predecessors. 

Not only were individual animals held sacred and worshiped but 
sometimes whole species, for example the cat, were regarded as 



20 



ANCIENT EGYPT 



[§27 




Fig. 14. Mummy of a Sacred Bull 
(From a photograph) 



sacred. To kill one of these animals was thought the greatest 
impiety. Many explanations have been given to account for the 
existence of such a debased form of worship among a people so 

cultured as were the ancient 
Egyptians. Probably the sa- 
cred animals in the later wor- 
ship simply represent an early 
crude stage of the Egyptian 
religion. 

27. Ideas of the Future 
Life; the Mummy. Among 
no other people of antiquity 
did the life beyond the tomb 
seem so real and hold so large 
a place in the thoughts of the 
living as among the Egyptians. They thought that the welfare of 
the soul in the hereafter was dependent upon the preservation of 
the body ; hence the anxious care with which they sought to 
protect the body against decay by embalming it. 

In the various processes of em- 
balming, use was made of oils, 
resins, bitumen, and various aro- 
matic gums. The bodies of the 
wealthy were preserved by being 
filled with costly aromatic and 
resinous substances, and swathed 
in bandages of linen. To a body 
thus treated is applied the term 
mummy. 

To this practice of the Egyp- 
tians of embalming their dead we 
owe it that we can look upon 
the actual faces of many of the 
ancient Pharaohs. Toward the 
close of the last century (in 1881) the mummies of nearly all 
the Pharaohs of the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, Twentieth, and 




Fig. 15. Profile of Rameses II 
(From a photograph of the mummy) 



§28] 



THE JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD 



21 



Twenty-first Dynasties were found in a secret rock chamber near 
Thebes. The faces of many are so remarkably preserved that, in 
the words of Maspero, "were their subjects to return to the earth 
today they could not fail to recognize their old sovereigns." 

28. The Judgment of the Dead and the Negative Confession. 
Death was a great equalizer among the Egyptians ; king and 
peasant alike must appear before the dread tribunal of Osiris, the 
judge of the underworld, and render an account of the deeds done 
in the body. Here the soul sought justification in such declarations 
as these, which form what is called the Negative Confession : " I 




Fig. i 6. The Judgment of the Dead. (From a papyrus) 

Showing the weighing of the heart of the deceased in the scales of truth 



have not blasphemed"; "I have not stolen"; "I have not slain 
anyone treacherously"; "I have not slandered anyone or made 
false accusation." In other declarations of the soul we find a 
singularly close approach to Christian morality, as for instance 
in this : " I have given bread to the hungry and drink to him who 
was athirst ; I have clothed the naked with garments." 

The truth of what the soul thus asserted in its own behalf was 
tested by the balances of the gods. In one of the scales was 
placed the heart of the deceased ; in the other, a feather, the symbol 
of truth or righteousness. The soul stood by watching the weigh- 
ing. If the heart were found not light, the soul was welcomed to 
the companionship of the good Osiris. The unjustified were sent 
to a place of torment or were thrown to a monster to be devoured. 



22 ANCIENT EGYPT [§29 

29. Architecture, Sculpture, and Minor Arts. In the building 
art the ancient Egyptians, in some respects, have never been sur- 
passed. The Memphian pyramids built by the earlier, and the 
Theban temples raised by the later, Pharaohs have excited the 
astonishment and the admiration alike of all the successive genera- 
tions that have looked upon them. 

In the cutting and shaping of enormous blocks of the hardest 
stone, the Egyptians achieved results which modern stonecutters 
can scarcely equal. " It is doubtful," says the historian Rawlinson, 
"whether the steam-sawing of the present day could be trusted 
to produce in ten years from the quarries of Aberdeen a single 
obelisk such as those which the Pharaohs set up by dozens." 

Egyptian sculpture was at its best in the earliest period ; that 
it became so imitative and the figures so conventional and rigid 
was due to the influence of religion. The artist, in the portrayal 
of the figures of the gods, was not allowed to change a single line 
of the sacred form. 

In many of the minor arts the Egyptians attained a surprisingly 
high degree of excellence. They were able in coloring glass to 
secure tints as brilliant and beautiful as any which modern art 
has been able to produce. In goldsmith's work they showed 
wonderful skill. 

It should be noted here that it was especially in the domain 
of art that the influence of Egypt was exerted upon contemporary 
civilizations. Until the full development of Greek art, Egyptian 
art reigned over the world in somewhat the same way that Greek 
art has reigned since the Golden Age of Greece. Its influence can 
be traced in the architecture, the sculpture, and the decorative art 
of all the peoples of the Mediterranean lands. 

30. The Sciences: Astronomy, Geometry, and Medicine. 
The cloudless and brilliant skies of Egypt invited the inhabitants 
of the Nile valley to the study of the heavenly bodies. And 
another circumstance closely related to their very existence — 
the inundation of the Nile, following the changing seasons — 
could not but have incited them to the watching and recording 
of the movements of the heavenly bodies. ' Their observations led 




Fig. i 7. Ruins of the Great Hall of Columns at Karnak 
(From a photograph) 



§31] EGYPT'S CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION 23 

them to discover the length, very nearly, of the solar year, which 
they divided into twelve months of thirty days each, with a festival 
period of five days at the end of the year. This was the calendar 
that, with minor changes, Julius Caesar introduced into the Roman 
Empire, and which, slightly reformed by Pope Gregory XIII, in 
1582, has been the system employed by almost all the civilized 
world up to the present day (sect. 290). 

The Greeks accounted for the early rise of the science of 
geometry among the Egyptians by the necessity they were under 
of reestablishing each year the boundaries of their fields — the 
inundation obliterating old landmarks and divisions. The science 
thus forced upon their attention was cultivated with zeal and 
success. The work of the Greek scholars in this field was based 
on that done by the Egyptians. 

The Egyptian physicians relied largely on magic, for every ail- 
ment was supposed to be caused by a demon that must be expelled 
by means of magical rites and incantations. But they also used 
drugs of various kinds ; the ciphers or characters employed by 
modern apothecaries to designate grains and drams are believed 
to be of Egyptian invention. 

31. Egypt's Contribution to Civilization. Egypt, we thus see, 
made valuable gifts to civilization. From the Nile came the germs 
of much found in the later cultures of the peoples of western Asia 
and of the Greeks and Romans, and through their agency in that 
of the modern world. u We are the heirs of the civilized past," 
says Professor Sayce, " and a goodly portion of that civilized past 
was the creation of ancient Egypt." 

References. Breasted, J. H., A History of Egypt, A History of the Ancient 
Egyptians, and Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. Mas- 
PERO, G., The Dawn of Civilization, chaps, i-vi ; The Struggle of the A r ations, 
chaps, i-v; and Alan u al of Egyptian Archeology. Rawlinson, G., History of 
Ancient Egypt, 2 vols., and Story of Ancient Egypt. Baikie, J., The Story of 
the Pharaohs. Wiedemann, A., Religion of the Ancient Egyptians. Wilkinson, 
Sir J. G., Mariners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (should be used 
with caution — portions are antiquated). Erman, A., Life in Ancient Egypt. 
Budge, E. A. W., Egyptian Religion and Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life. 








CHAPTER IV 

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 

I. THE EARLY CITY-KINGDOMS OF BABYLONIA AND THE 
OLD BABYLONIAN EMPIRE 

32. The Tigris and Euphrates Valley ; the Upper and the 
Lower Country. As in the case of Egypt, so in that of the Tigris 
and Euphrates valley, 1 the physical features of the country exerted 
a great influence upon the history of its ancient peoples. Dif- 
ferences in geological structure divide this region into an upper 
and a lower district ; and this twofold division in natural features 
is reflected, as we shall see, throughout its political history. The 
northern part of the valley, the portion that comprised ancient 
Assyria, consists of undulating plains, broken in places by moun- 
tain ridges. This region nourished a hardy and warlike race, and 
became the seat of a great military empire. 

The southern part of the valley, the part known as Babylonia, 
is, like the Delta region of Egypt, an alluvial deposit. The making 

Note. The picture at the head of this page shows the Babil Mound, at Babylon, as 
it appeared in 1811. 

1 The ancient Greeks gave to the land embraced by the Tigris and the Euphrates 
the name of Mesopotamia, which means literally "the land between or amidst the 
rivers." The name is often loosely applied to the whole Tigris-Euphrates valley. 

24 



§33] 



THE AGE OF CITY-KINGDOMS 



25 



of new land by the rivers has gone on steadily during historic 
times. The ruins of one of the ancient seaports of the country 
(Eridu) lie over a hundred miles inland from the present head of 
the Persian Gulf. In ancient times much of the land was pro- 
tected against the overflow of the rivers in seasons of freshet, 
and watered in seasons of drought, by a stupendous system of 
dikes and canals, which at the present day, in a ruined and sand- 
choked condition, cover like a network the face of the country. 










Fig. 18. Ancient Babylonian Canal 



The productions of Babylonia are very like those of the Nile 
valley. The luxuriant growth of grain upon these alluvial flats 
excited the wonder of the Greek travelers who visited the East. 
Herodotus will not tell the whole truth for fear his veracity may be 
doubted. This favored plain in a remote period of antiquity became 
the seat of an agricultural, industrial, and commercial population 
among which the arts of civilized life found a development which 
possibly was as old as that of Egypt, and which ran parallel with it. 

33. The Age of City-Kingdoms. When the light of history 
first falls upon the Mesopotamian lands, about 3000 B.C., it reveals 
the lower river plain filled with independent walled cities like those 



26 



BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 



[§34 




which we find later in Palestine, Greece, and Italy. Each city 
had its patron god, and was ruled by a prince bearing the title 
of king or lord. 

From the tablets of the old Babylonian temple archives (sect. 
36), patient scholars are slowly deciphering the wonderful story 
of these ancient cities. The political side of their history may, 
for our present purpose, be summarized by saying that for a 
period of two thousand years and more their records, so far as 
they have become known to us, are annals of wars waged for 

supremacy by one city 
and its gods against 
other cities and their 
gods. 

Of all the kings 
whose names have 
been recovered from 
the monuments we 
shall here mention 
only one — Sargon I 
(about 2800 B.C.), a 
Semitic king of Akkad, whose reign forms a great landmark in 
early Babylonian annals. He built up a powerful state in Baby- 
lonia and carried his arms to "the land of the setting sun" (Syria). 
34. The Rise of Babylon; the Old Babylonian Empire. 
Among these cities of the plain was the great Babylon, whose name 
is a household word throughout the world today. Gradually 
rising into prominence, this city gave to the whole country the 
name by which it is best known — Babylonia. 

For more than fifteen hundred years Babylon was the political 
and commercial center of what is known as the Old Babylonian 
Empire, a state of varying fortunes, of changing dynasties, and 
of shifting frontiers. Meanwhile a new Semitic power had been 
slowly developing in the north. This was the Assyrian Empire, 
the later center and capital of which was the great city of Nineveh. 
Finally Babylonia was conquered by an Assyrian king and passed 
under Assyrian control (728 B.C.). 



Fig. 19. Impression of a Seal of Sargon I 
(Date about 2800 b. c.) 

Must be ranked among the masterpieces of oriental 
engraving. — Maspero 



§35] REMAINS OF BABYLONIAN STRUCTURES 27 

35. Remains of the Babylonian Cities and Public Buildings. 
The Babylonian plains are dotted with enormous mounds, gen- 
erally inclosed by vast ramparts of earth. These heaps are the 
remains of the great mud-walled cities, the palaces, and shrines 
of the ancient Babylonians. About the middle of the nineteenth 
century some mounds of the upper country were excavated, and 
the world was astonished to see rising as from the tomb the palaces 
of the great Assyrian kings. This was the beginning of excavations 
and discoveries in the Mesopotamian lands which during the past 
half century have recovered the history of long- forgotten empires, 
reconstructed the history of the Orient, and given us a new 
beginning for universal history. 

36. Cuneiform Writing. From the earliest period known to 
us, the Babylonians were in possession of a system of writing. To 

[W<H *TJEOEHffi *Wl£r If 

Fig. 20. Cuneiform Writing 

Translation : " Five thousand mighty cedars I spread for its roof " 

this system the term cuneiform (from cuneus, a "wedge") has 
been given on account of its wedge-shaped characters. The signs 
assumed this peculiar form from being impressed upon soft clay 
tablets with an angular writing instrument. This system of writ- 
ing had been developed out of an earlier system of picture writing. 
The Babylonians never developed the system beyond the syllabic 
stage (sect. 10). They used four or five hundred syllable signs. 1 
This mode of writing was in use among the peoples of western 
Asia from before 3000 B.C. down to the first century of our era. 
Thus for three thousand years it was just such an important factor 
in the earlier civilizations of the ancient world as the Phoenician 
alphabet in its various forms has been during the last three 

1 The Persians at a much later time borrowed the system and developed it into a 
purely alphabetic one. Their alphabet consisted of thirty-six characters. 
SA 



28 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA [§ 37 

thousand years in the civilizations of all the peoples of culture, 
save those of eastern Asia, who use systems developed from the 
Chinese (sect. 77). 

The writing material of the Babylonians was usually clay 
tablets of various sizes. The tablets were carefully preserved in 
great public archives, which sometimes formed an adjunct of the 
temple of some specially revered deity. 

37. The Religion. The Babylonians, like the Egyptians, were 
worshipers of many gods. The god-group embraced powerful 
nature gods, local city deities, and a multitude of lesser gods. 

The most prominent feature from first to last of the popular 
religion was a belief in spirits, particularly in wicked spirits, and 
the practice of magic rites and incantations to avert the evil 
influence of these demons. A second most important feature of 
the religion was what is known as astrology, or the foretelling of 
events by the aspect of the planets and stars. The Chaldean 
astrologers were famed throughout the ancient world. 

Alongside these low beliefs and superstitious practices there 
existed, however, higher and purer elements. This is best illus- 
trated by the so-called penitential psalms, which breathe a spirit 
like that of the penitential psalms of the Old Testament. 

38. Legislation : the Code of Hammurabi. In 1901-1902 
French excavators at Susa, in the ancient Elam, discovered a block 
of stone upon which was inscribed the code of laws set up by 
Hammurabi, king of Babylon, more than two thousand years B.C. 
This is the oldest sytem of laws known to us. It is, in the main, 
merely a collection of earlier laws and ancient customs. 

The code casts a strong side light upon the Babylonian life of 
the period when it was compiled, and thus constitutes one of the 
most valuable monuments spared to us from the old Semitic world. 
It defined the rights and duties of husband and wife, master and 
slave, of merchants, gardeners, tenants, shepherds — of all the 
classes which made up the population of the Babylonian Empire. 
As in the case of the later Hebrew code, the principle of retaliation 
determined the penalty for injury done another ; it was an eye 
for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. 



§39] BABYLONIAN SCIENCES 29 

For more than two thousand years after its compilation this 
code of laws was in force in the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, 
and even after this lapse of time it was used as a textbook in the 
schools of the Mesopotamian lands. Probably no other code save 
the Mosaic or the Justinian (sect. 385) has exerted a greater 
influence upon human society. 

39. Sciences: Astronomy, the Calendar, and Mathematics. 
In astronomy the Babylonians made greater advance than the 
Egyptians. Their knowledge of the heavens came about from 
their interest as astrologers in the stars. They divided the zodiac 
into twelve signs and named its constellations, a memorial of their 
astronomical attainments which will remain forever inscribed upon 
the great circle of the heavens ; they foretold eclipses of the sun 
and moon ; they invented the sundial ; they divided the year intc 
twelve months, the day and night into hours, and the hours into 
minutes, and devised a week of seven days. 1 

In the mathematical sciences, also, the Babylonians made con- 
siderable advance. The duodecimal system in numbers was their 
invention, and it is from them that the system has come to us. 
They devised measures of length, weight, and capacity. It was 
from them that all the peoples of antiquity derived their systems 
of weight and measure. Aside from letters, these are perhaps the 
most indispensable agents in the life of a people after they have 
risen above the lowest levels of barbarism. 

II. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE 

40. Introduction. The story of Assyria is in the main a story 
of the Assyrian kings. And it is a story of ruthless war, which 
made the Assyrian kings the scourge of antiquity. To relate this 
story with any measure of detail would involve endless repetition 
of the royal records of pillaging raids and punitive campaigns in 
all the countries of western Asia. We shall therefore merely men- 
tion two or three of the great kings of the later empire whose 
names live among the renowned personages of the ancient world. 

1 This week of seven days was a subdivision of the moon-month, based on the phases 
of the moon, namely, new moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter. 



30 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA [§41 

41. Sargon II (722-705 B.C.). Sargon II was a great conqueror. 
In 722 b.c. he captured Samaria and carried away the most in- 
fluential classes of the Ten Tribes of Israel into captivity (sect. 56). 
The greater portion of the captives were scattered among the towns 
of Media and Mesopotamia, and probably became, for the most 
part, merged with the population of those regions. 

42. Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.). To Sennacherib, the son of 
Sargon, we must accord the first place of renown among the 
Assyrian kings. His name, connected as it is with the history of 
Jerusalem and with the wonderful discoveries among the ruined 
palaces of Nineveh, has become as familiar as that of Nebuchad- 
nezzar in the story of Babylon. His reign was filled with military 
expeditions and marked by great building enterprises at Nineveh. 
Respecting the decoration of this capital, one of his inscriptions 
says : " I raised again all the edifices of Nineveh, my royal city ; 
I reconstructed all its old streets, and widened those that were 
too narrow. I made the whole town a city shining like the sun." 

43. The Fall of Nineveh (606 B.C.). A ruler named by the 
Greek writers Saracus was the last of the long line of Assyrian 
kings. For nearly or quite six centuries the Ninevite kings had 
now lorded it over the East. There was scarcely a state in all 
western Asia that during this time had not, in the language of the 
royal inscriptions, "borne the heavy yoke of their lordship"; 
scarcely a people that had not suffered their cruel punishments or 
tasted the bitterness of enforced exile. 

But now swift misfortunes were bearing down from every 
quarter upon the oppressor. Egypt revolted and tore Syria away 
from the empire. In the southern lowlands the Babylonians also 
rose in revolt, while from the mountain defiles on the east issued 
the armies of the recent-grown empire of the Aryan Medes and 
laid close siege to Nineveh. The city was finally taken and sacked, 
and dominion passed away forever from the proud capital 
(606 b.c). Two hundred years later, when Xenophon with his 
Ten Thousand Greeks, in his memorable retreat (sect. 162), passed 
the spot, the once great city was a crumbling mass of ruins and 
its name had been forgotten. 



§44] ASSYRIAN EXCAVATIONS AND DISCOVERIES 31 

44. Assyrian Excavations and Discoveries. In 1843-1844 
M. Botta, the French consul resident at Mosul on the Tigris, 
excavated a great palace-mound some distance from the site of 
old Nineveh, and astonished the world with most wonderful 
specimens of Assyrian art from the palace of Sargon II. The 
sculptured and lettered slabs were removed to the museum of 




Fig. 21. Excavating an Assyrian Palace. (After Layard) 

the Louvre, in Paris. A little later Austen Henry Layard, an 
English archaeologist, disentombed the palace of Sennacherib 
and those of other kings at Nineveh and Calah (the earliest capital 
of the Assyrian kingdom), and enriched the British Museum with 
the treasures of his search. 

In the ruins of one of the palaces at Nineveh was discovered 
what is known as the Royal Library, the largest and most im- 
portant library of the old Semitic world, from which over twenty 
thousand tablets were taken. The greater part of the tablets were 
copies of older Babylonian works; for the literature of the As- 
syrians, as well as their arts and sciences, was borrowed almost 
in a body from the Babylonians. 



32 



BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 



[§45 



45. Cruelty of the Assyrians. The Assyrians have been called 
the " Romans of Asia." They were a proud, warlike, and cruel 
race. The Assyrian kings seem to have surpassed all others in 
the cruelty which characterizes the warfare of the whole ancient 
Orient. The sculptured marbles of their palaces exhibit the 
hideously cruel tortures inflicted by them upon prisoners (Fig. 22). 
A royal inscription which is a fair specimen of many others runs 
as follows : "The nobles, as many as had revolted, I flayed ; . . . 
Three thousand of their captives I burned with fire. ... I cut 




Fig. 22. Assyrians Flaying Prisoners Alive. (From a bas-relief) 



off the hands [and] feet of some ; I cut off the noses, the ears 
[and] the fingers of others ; the eyes of the numerous soldiers 
1 put out. . . . Their young men [and] their maidens I burned 
as a holocaust." The significant thing here is that the king exults 
in having done these things and thinks to immortalize himself by 
portraying them upon imperishable stone. 

46. Services rendered Civilization by Assyria. Assyria did 
a work like that done by Rome at a later time. Just as Rome 
welded all the peoples of the Mediterranean world into a great 
empire, and then throughout her vast domains scattered the seeds 
of the civilization which she had borrowed from vanquished Greece, 
so did Assyria weld into a great empire the innumerable petty war- 
ring states and tribes of western Asia, and then throughout her 
extended dominions spread the civilization which she had in the 
main borrowed from the conquered Babylonians. 



§ 47] BABYLON BECOMES A GREAT POWER 33 

III. THE CHALDEAN OR NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE 

(625-538 B.C.) 

47. Babylon becomes again a Great Power. Nabopolassar 
(625-605 B.C.) was the founder of what is known as the Chaldean 
or New Babylonian Empire. At first a vassal of the Assyrian king, 
when troubles began to thicken about the Assyrian court, he 
revolted and became independent. With the break-up of the 
Assyrian Empire, the Babylonian kingdom refceived large acces- 
sions of territory. For a short time thereafter Babylon held a 
great place in history. 

48. Nebuchadnezzar II (605-561 B.C.). Nabopolassar was fol- 
lowed by his son Nebuchadnezzar, whose renown filled the ancient 
world. One important event of his reign was the siege and capture 
of Jerusalem. The city was pillaged and its walls were thrown 
down. The temple was stripped of its sacred vessels of silver and 
gold, which were carried away to Babylon, and the temple itself 
was given to the flames ; a part of the people were also carried 
away into the "Great Captivity" (586 B.C.). 

Nebuchadnezzar rivaled even the Pharaohs in the execution of 
immense works requiring vast expenditures of human labor. 
Among his works were the Great Palace in the royal quarter of 
Babylon, the celebrated Hanging Gardens, 1 and the City Walls. 
The gardens and the walls were reckoned among the seven wonders 
of the ancient world. 

Especially zealous was Nebuchadnezzar in the erection and 
restoration of the shrines of the gods. "Like dear life," runs 
one of the inscriptions, "love I the building of their lodging 
places." He dwells with fondness on all the details of the work, 
and tells how he ornamented the panelings of the shrines with 
precious stones, roofed them with huge beams of cedar overlaid 

1 The Hanging Gardens were constructed by Nebuchadnezzar to please his wife 
Amytis, who, tired of the monotony of the Babylonian plains, longed for the mountain 
scenery of her native Media. The gardens were probably built somewhat in the form 
of the tower temples, the successive stages being covered with earth and beautified 
with plants and trees, so as to simulate the appearance of a mountain rising in cultivated 
terraces toward the sky. 



34 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA [§ 49 

with gold and silver, and decorated the gates with plates of bronze, 
making the sacred abodes as "bright as the stars of heaven." 

49. The Fall of Babylon (538 B.C.). The glory of the New 
Babylonian Empire passed away with Nebuchadnezzar. Among 
the mountains and on the uplands to the east of the Tigris- 
Euphrates valley there had been growing up an Aryan kingdom. 
At the time which we have now reached, this state, through the 
destruction of the Assyrian Empire and the absorption of its prov- 
inces, had grown into a great imperial power — the Medo-Persian. 
At the head of this new empire was Cyrus, a strong, energetic, and 
ambitious sovereign (sect. 66). Coming into collision with the 
Babylonian king Nabonidus he defeated his army in the open 
field, and the gates of the strongly fortified capital Babylon were 
without further resistance thrown open to the Persians. 

With the fall of Babylon the scepter of dominion, borne so long 
by Semitic princes, was given into the hands of the Aryan peoples, 
who were destined from this time forward to shape the main course 
of events and control the affairs of civilization. 1 

References. Maspero, G., The Dawn of Civilization, chaps, vii-ix ; The 
Struggle of the Nations, chaps, i, vi ; The Passing of the Nations^ chaps, i-v ; 
and Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, chaps, xi-xx. King, L. W., History of 
Akkad and Sumir and A History of Babylon. Rawlinson, G., The Five Great 
Monarchies, 3 vols. Rogers, R. W., History of Babylonia and Assyria, 2 vols. 
Hommel, F., The Civilization of the East. Goodspeed, G. S., A History of the 
Babylonians and Assyrians. Ragozin, Z. A., The Slofy of Assyria. Layard, 
A. H., Nineveh and its Remains. Peters, J. P., Nippur, 2 vols. Jastrow, N., 
The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria and The Civilization of Babylonia and 
Assyria. Sayce, A. H., Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians. 
Koldewey, R., The Excavations at Babylon. The Code of Hammurabi (in 
either the C. H. W. Johns or the R. F. Harper translation). 

1 For the temporary revival of Semitic power throughout the Orient by the Arabs, 
see Chapter XXX IX. 



CHAPTER V 

THE HEBREWS 

50. The Patriarchal Age. The history of the Hebrews, as nar- 
rated in their sacred books, begins with the departure of the 
patriarch Abraham out of "Ur of the Chaldees." The stories of 
Abraham and his nephew Lot, of Isaac and his sons Jacob and 
Esau, of the sojourn and the oppression of the descendants of 
Jacob in Egypt, of the Exodus under the leadership of the great 
lawgiver Moses, of the conquest of Canaan by his successor Joshua 
— all these wonderful stories are told in the old Hebrew Scriptures 
with a charm and simplicity that have made them the familiar 
possession of childhood. 

51. The Age of the "Judges" (ending about 1050 B.C.). The 
intrusion into Canaan of the Israelite tribes was followed by a long 
period of petty wars, brigandage, and anarchy. During this time 
there arose a line of national heroes, such as Gideon, Jephthah, 
and Samson, whose deeds of valor and daring, and the timely 
deliverance they wrought for the tribes of Israel from their foes, 
caused their names to be handed down with grateful remembrance 
to following ages. These popular leaders are called "Judges" by 
the Bible writers. 

52. Founding of the Hebrew Monarchy (about 1050 B.C.). 
During the time of the " Judges" there was, as the history of the 
period shows, no effective union among the tribes of Israel. But 
the common danger to which they were exposed from enemies, — 
especially from the warlike Philistines, — and the example of the 
nations about them, led the people finally to begin to think of the 
advantages of a more perfect union and of a strong central govern- 
ment. The hitherto loose confederation, accordingly, was changed 
into a kingdom, and Saul of the tribe of Benjamin was made king 
of the new monarchy. 

sa 35 



36 THE HEBREWS [§53 

53. The Reign of David (about 1025-993 B.C.). Upon the 
death of Saul, David, son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, assumed 
the scepter. He built up a real empire and waged wars against the 
troublesome tribes of Moab, Ammon, and Edom. 

David was a poet as well as a warrior. His lament over Saul 
and Jonathan 1 is regarded as one of the noblest specimens of 
elegiac poetry that has come down from Hebrew antiquity. Such 
was his fame that the authorship of a large number of hymns 
written in a later age was ascribed to him. 

54. The Reign of Solomon (about 993-953 B.C.). David was 
followed by his son Solomon. The son did not possess the father's 
talent for military affairs, but was a liberal patron of art, com- 
merce, and learning. He erected with the utmost magnificence of 
adornment the temple at Jerusalem planned by his father David. 
Thenceforth this temple was the center of the Hebrew worship and 
of the national life. As the reputed author of famous proverbs, 
Solomon has lived in tradition as the wisest king of the East. He 
maintained a court of oriental magnificence. When the queen 
of Sheba, made curious by reports of his glory, came from 
South Arabia to visit him, she exclaimed, "The half was not 
told me." 

55. The Division of the Kingdom (about 953 B.C.). The reign 
of Solomon was brilliant, yet disastrous in the end to the Hebrew 
monarchy. In order to carry on his vast undertakings he had 
laid oppressive taxes upon his people. When Rehoboam, his 
son, succeeded to his father's place, the people entreated him to 
lighten the taxes. He refused. Straightway all the tribes, save 
Judah and Benjamin, rose in revolt, and succeeded in setting up 
to the north of Jerusalem a rival kingdom, with Jeroboam as its 
first king. This northern state, of which Samaria afterwards 
became the capital, was known as the Kingdom of Israel ; the 
southern, of which Jerusalem remained the capital, was called 
the Kingdom of Judah. 

Thus was torn in twain the empire of David and Solomon. 
United, the tribes might have offered successful resistance to the 

1 2 Sam. i, 17-27. 



§56] THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL 37 

encroachments of the powerful and ambitious monarchs about 
them. But now the land became an easy prey to the spoiler. 

56. The Kingdom of Israel (953?-722 B.C.). The kingdom 
of the Ten Tribes maintained its existence for about two hundred 
years. The little state was at last overwhelmed by the Assyrian 
power. This happened 722 B.C., when Samaria, as already nar- 
rated, was captured by Sargon II, king of Nineveh, and the flower 
of the people were carried away into captivity. The gaps thus 
made in the population of Samaria were filled with other subjects 
or captives of the Assyrian king. The descendants of these, 
mingled with the Israelites that were still left in the country, 
formed the Samaritans of the time of Christ. 

57. The Kingdom of Judah (953?-586B.c). This little king- 
dom maintained an independent existence for over three centuries, 
but upon the extension of the power of Babylon to the west, Jeru- 
salem was forced to acknowledge the overlordship of the Baby- 
lonian kings. The kingdom at last shared the fate of its northern 
rival. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in revenge for an upris- 
ing of the Jews, besieged and captured Jerusalem and carried away 
a large part of the people into captivity at Babylon. This event 
virtually ended the separate political life of the Hebrew race 
(586 B.C.). Henceforth Judea constituted simply a province of the 
empires which successively held sway over the regions of western 
Asia, with, however, just one short period of national life under 
the Maccabees, during a part of the two centuries immediately 
preceding the birth of Christ. 

58. Hebrew Literature. The literature of the Hebrews is a 
religious one ; for literature with them was in the main merely 
a means of inculcating religious truth or awakening devotional 
feeling. This unique literature is contained in sacred books known 
as the Old or Hebrew Testament. In these ancient writings his- 
tories, poems, prophecies, and personal narratives blend in a 
wonderful mosaic, which pictures with vivid and grand effect the 
migrations, the deliverances, the calamities, — all the events and 
religious experiences making up the checkered life of the people 
of Israel. 



38 THE HEBREWS [§59 

Out of the Old arose the New Testament, which we should think 
of as a part of Hebrew literature; for although written in the 
Greek language and long after the close of the political life of the 
Jewish nation, nevertheless it is essentially Hebrew in thought and 
doctrine, and the supplement and crown of the Hebrew Scriptures. 

Besides the Sacred Scriptures, called collectively, by way of pre- 
eminence, the Bible (the Book), it remains to mention especially 
the Apocrypha, embracing a number of books that were composed 
after the decline of the prophetic spirit, and which show traces of 
the influence of Persian and Greek thought. 

Neither must we fail to mention the Talmud, a collection of 
Hebrew customs and traditions, with the comments thereupon of 
the rabbis, a work held by most Jews next in sacredness to the 
Holy Book; the writings of Philo, an illustrious Alexandrian 
philosopher (born about 25 B.C.) ; and the Antiquities of the Jews 
and the Jewish War by the historian Josephus (born a.d. 37). 

59. Hebrew Religion and Morality. The ancient Hebrews 
made little or no contribution to science. They produced no new 
order of architecture. In sculpture they did nothing ; their religion 
forbade their making " graven images." Their mission was to 
make known the idea of God as a being holy and just and com- 
passionate and loving, — as the Universal Father whose care is 
over not one people alone but over all peoples and all races, — 
and to teach men that what he requires of them is that they shall 
do justice and practice righteousness. 

This lofty conception of God was the best element in the 
bequest which the ancient Hebrews made to the younger Aryan 
world of Europe, and is largely what entitles them to the pre- 
eminent place they hold in the history of humanity. 

References. Sayce, A. H., Early Israel and the Surrounding A T ations. 
KENT, C. F., A History of the Hebrew People, 2 vols. RENAN, E., History of the 
People of Israel, 4 vols. Cornill, C. H., History of the People ofLsrael. HiL- 
PRECHT, H. V., Recent Research in Bible Lands and Explorations in Bible 
Lands in the Nineteenth Century (consult tables of contents). Montefiore, 
C. G., Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Reli- 
gion of the Ancient Hebrews. Ball, C. J., Light from the East. Budde, K., Religion 
of Israel to the Exile. Cheyne, T. K.,fewish Religious Life after the Exile. 



CHAPTER VI 




THE PH(ENICIANS 

60. The Land. Ancient Phoenicia embraced a little strip of 
broken seacoast lying between the Mediterranean Sea and the 
ranges of Mount Lebanon. One of the most noted productions 
of the country was the fine fir timber cut from the forests that 
crowned the lofty ranges of the Lebanon Mountains. The "cedars 
of Lebanon" hold a prominent place both 
in the history and in the poetry of the 
East. 

Another celebrated product of the coun- 
try was the Tyrian purple, which was 
obtained from several varieties of the 
Murex, a species of shellfish secured at 
first along the Phoenician coast, but later 
sought in distant waters, especially in the 
Grecian seas. 

61. Tyre and Sidon. The various 
Phoenician cities never coalesced to form 

a true nation. They constituted merely a sort of league or con- 
federacy, the petty states of which generally acknowledged the 
leadership of Tyre or of Sidon, the two chief cities. From about 
the eleventh to the fourth century B.C. Tyre controlled, almost 
without dispute on the part of Sidon, the affairs of Phoenicia. 
During this time the maritime enterprise and energy of her 
merchants spread throughout the Mediterranean world the fame 
of the little island capital. 

62. Phoenician Commerce. It was natural that the people of 
the Phoenician coast should have been led to a seafaring life. The 
lofty mountains that back the little strip of shore seemed to shut 
them out from a career of conquest and to prohibit an extension 

39 



Fig. 23. Species of the 
Murex. (After Maspero) 

The mollusks which secrete 

the famous purple dye of the 

ancient Tyrians 



40 



THE PHOENICIANS 



[§63 



of their land domains. At the same time, the Mediterranean in 
front invited them to maritime enterprise, while the forests of 
Lebanon in the rear offered timber in abundance for their ships. . 
One of the earliest centers of activity of the Phoenician traders 
was the ^Egean Sea; but towards the close of the tenth or the 
ninth century b.c. the jealousy of the Greek city-states, now 
growing into maritime power, closed the eastern Mediterranean 
against them. They then pushed out into the western Mediter- 
ranean. One chief object of their quest here was tin, which was 

in great demand on 
account of its use in 
the manufacture of 
bronze. The tin was 
at first supplied by 
the mines opened in 
the Iberian (Spanish) 
peninsula. Later the 
bold Phoenician sailors 
passed the Pillars of 
Hercules, braved the 
dangers of the At- 
lantic, and brought back from those stormy seas the product of 
the tin-producing districts 1 of western Europe. 

63. Phoenician Colonies. Along the different routes pursued 
by their ships, and upon the coasts visited by them, the Phoenicians 
established naval stations and trading posts. Settlements were 
planted in Cyprus, in Rhodes, and on other islands of the ^Egean 
Sea, and probably even in Greece itself. The shores of the islands 
of Sicily and Sardinia were fringed with Phoenician colonies ; while 
the coast of North Africa was dotted with such great cities as Utica, 
Hippo, and Carthage. Colonies were even planted beyond, the 
Pillars of Hercules, upon the Atlantic seaboard. The Phoenician 
settlement of Gades, upon the western coast of Spain, is still 
preserved in the modern Cadiz. 

1 Probably one or all of the following regions : northwest Spain, southwest Britain 
(Cornwall), and the neighboring Scilly Islands — possibly the ancient Cassiterides. 




Fig. 24. Phoenician Galley. 
Assyrian sculpture) 



(From an 



§ 64] ARTS DISSEMINATED BY THE PHOENICIANS 41 

64. Arts spread abroad by the Phoenicians ; the Alphabet. 
Commerce has been called the path-breaker of civilization. Cer- 
tainly it was such in antiquity when the Phoenician traders carried 
in their ships to every Mediterranean land the wares of the work- 
shops of Tyre and Sidon, and along with these material products 
carried also the seeds of culture from the ancient lands of Egypt 
and Babylonia. "Egypt and Assyria," as has been tersely said, 
"were the birthplace of material civilization; the Phoenicians 
were its missionaries." 

Most fruitful of all the arts which the Phoenicians introduced 
among the peoples with whom they traded was the art of alpha- 
betic writing. As early at least as 900 B.C. they were in possession 
of an alphabet. Now wherever the Phoenician traders went they 
carried this alphabet as " one of their exports." It was through them 
that the Greeks received it ; the Greeks passed it on to the Romans, 
and the Romans gave it to the German folk. In this way our 
alphabet came to us from the ancient East. It would be diffi- 
cult to exaggerate the importance of this gift of the alphabet 
to the Aryan-speaking peoples of Europe. Without it their 
civilization could never have become so rich and progressive 
as it did. 1 

Among the other elements of culture which the Phoenicians 
carried to the peoples of the Mediterranean lands, the most im- 
portant, after alphabetical writing, were systems of weights and 
measures. These are indispensable agents of civilization, and hold 
some such relation to the development of trade and commerce as 
letters hold to the development of the intellectual life. 

References. RAWLINSON, G., History of Phoenicia and The Stoty of Phoenicia. 
Sayce, A. H., The Ancient Empires of the East, chaps, iii, iv. The Bible, 
Ezek. xxvii (a striking portrayal by the prophet of the commerce, the trade 
relations, and the wealth of Tyre). The Voyage of Hanno (a record of a 
Phoenician exploring expedition down the western coast of Africa). A trans- 
lation of this celebrated record will be found in Rawlinson's History of 
Phoenicia, pp. 389-392. 

1 All systems of writing now in use, except the Chinese (sect. 77) and those derived 
from it, are from the Phoenician script. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 
(558-330 B.C.) 

65. Kinship of the Medes and Persians. It was in remote 
times, probably before 1 500 b. c, that some Aryan tribes, separat- 
ing themselves from kindred clans, the ancestors of the Indian 
Aryans, with whom they had lived for a time as a single com- 
munity, sought new abodes on the plateau of western Iran. The 
immigrants that settled in the south, near the Persian Gulf, be- 
came known as Persians ; while those that took possession of the 
mountain regions of the northwest were called Medes. The names 
of the two peoples were always very closely associated, as in the 
Bible phrase, "The law of the Medes and Persians, which 
altereth not." 

66. Cyrus the Great (558-529 B.C.) founds a Great World 
Empire. The Medes were at first the leading people. Their 
leadership, however, was of short duration. A certain Cyrus 
overthrew their power, and assumed the headship of both Medes 
and Persians. Through his energy and soldierly genius Cyrus 
soon built up an empire more extended than any over which the 
scepter had yet been swayed by oriental monarch, or indeed, so 
far as we know, by any ruler before his time. 

After the conquest of Media and the acquisition of the prov- 
inces formerly ruled by the Median princes, Cyrus rounded out 
his empire by the conquest of Lydia and Babylonia. Lydia was a 
country in the western part of Asia Minor. It embraced two rich 
river valleys, — the plains of the Hermus and the Cayster, — which, 
from the mountains inland, slope gently to the island-dotted 
^Egean. The coast region did not at first belong to Lydia; it 
was held by the Greeks, who had fringed it with cities. The capital 
of the country was Sardis. 

42 



§67] REIGN OF DARIUS I 43 

The Lydian throne was at this time held by Croesus (560- 
546 B.C.), the last and most renowned of his race. The tribute 
Croesus collected from the Greek cities which he had subjugated 
and the revenue he derived from his gold mines rendered him the 
richest monarch of his times, so that his name has passed into the 
proverb "rich as Croesus." 

It was this king who, alarmed at the growth of the Persian 
power, threw down the gage of battle to Cyrus. Cyrus defeated 
the Lydians in the open field, and after a short siege captured 
Sardis. Lydia now became a part of the Persian Empire. This 
war between Croesus and Cyrus derives special importance from 
the fact that it brought the Persian Empire into contact with the 
Greek cities of Asia, and thus led on directly to a memorable 
struggle between Greece and Persia, — one of the chief matters of 
ancient history, — the incidents of which we shall narrate in a 
later chapter. 

The fall of Lydia was followed by that of Babylon, as has been 
already related as. part of the story of the Chaldean Empire. 
Cyrus had now rounded out his dominions. 

67. Reign of Darius I (521-484 B.C.). Cyrus was followed by 
his son Cambyses, who through conquest added Egypt to the 
growing empire. A short troublous period followed the death of 
Cambyses and then Darius I, the greatest of the Persian kings, 
took the throne. The new king built splendid structures at 
Persepolis ; reformed the government, making such wise and 
lasting changes that he has been called " the second founder of the 
Persian Empire"; established post roads; and upon the great 
Behistun Rock, a lofty, smooth-faced cliff on the western frontier 
of Persia, caused to be inscribed a record of all he had done. 

And now the Great King, lord of western Asia and of Egypt, 
conceived and entered upon the execution of vast designs of con- 
quest, the far-reaching effects of which were destined to live long 
after he had passed away. He determined to extend the frontiers 
of his empire into India and Europe alike. 

At one blow Darius brought northwestern India under his author- 
ity, and thus by a single effort pushed out the eastern boundary 



44 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 



[§68 



of his empire so that it included one of the richest countries 
of Asia. Several campaigns in Europe followed. These brought 
Darius in direct contact with the Greeks, of whom we shall soon 
hear much. How his armaments and those of his son and suc- 
cessor, Xerxes I, fared at the hands of this freedom-loving people, 
who now appear for the first time as prominent actors in large 
world affairs, will be told when we come to narrate the history of 



SilihSssd^ 




Fig. 25. Insurgent Captives brought before Darius 
(From the Behistun Rock) 



the Greek city-states. We need now simply note the result — 
the wreck of the Persian plans of conquest and the opening of the 
great days of Greece. 

68. End of the Persian Empire. The power and supremacy 
of the Persian monarchy passed away with the reign of Xerxes. 
In the year 334 b.c. Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, led 
a small army of Greeks and Macedonians across the Hellespont 
intent upon the conquest of Asia. The story of the establishment 
by him of the short-lived Macedonian monarchy upon the ruins 
of the Persian Empire properly belongs to Grecian history, and 
will be related at a later stage of our narrative. 






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§69] 



THE GOVERNMENT 



45 



69. The Government. Before the reign of Darius I the Persian 
Empire consisted of a great number of subject states, which were 
allowed to retain their own kings and manage their own affairs, 
merely paying tribute and homage and furnishing war contingents 
to the Great King. 

Darius converted this primitive type of government into what 
is known as the satrapal, a form represented until recently by the 
Turkish Empire. The main part of the lands embraced by the 
monarchy was divided into twenty or more provinces, over each 
of which was placed 
a governor, called a 
satrap, appointed by 
the king. These offi- 
cials held their posi- 
tion at the pleasure 
of the sovereign. 
Each province con- 
tributed to the in- 
come of the king a 
stated revenue. 

There were pro- 
visions in the system 
by- which the king 
might be apprised of 

the disloyalty of his satraps. Thus the whole dominion was firmly 
cemented together, and the facility with which almost-sovereign 
states — which was the real character of the different parts of the 
empire under the old system — could plan and execute revolt, was 
removed. 

70. Religion and Morality; Zoroastrianism. The literature 
of the ancient Persians was mostly religious. Their sacred book is 
called the Zend-Avesta. The religious system of the Persians, as 
taught in the Zend-Avesta, is known as Zoroastrianism, from 
Zoroaster, its supposed founder. This great reformer and teacher 
is now generally believed to have lived and taught about iooo B.C., 
though some scholars place him several centuries later. 




Fig. 26. Ancient Persian Fire-Altars 
(From Perrot, History of Persian Art) 



46 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE [§ 70 

Zoroastrianism was a system of belief known as dualism. 
There was a good spirit, Ahura Mazda, whose truest symbol or 
manifestation was fire. Upon high mountain tops the eternal 
flame on fire-altars was kept burning from generation to genera- 
tion. Because of their veneration for fire the ancient Persians are 
often called fire-worshipers. 

Opposed to the good spirit Ahura, or Ormazd, was an evil spirit 
Ahriman, who was constantly striving to destroy the good creations 
of Ahura by creating all evil things — drought, pestilence, baneful 
animals, weeds and thorns in the world without, and evil in the 
heart of man within. From all eternity these two powers had 
been contending for the mastery ; in the present neither had the 
decided advantage, but in the near future Ahura, it was believed, 
would triumph over Ahriman, and evil be forever destroyed. 

The duty of man was to aid Ahura by working with him against 
the evil-loving Ahriman. He must labor to eradicate every evil 
and vice from his own heart, to reclaim the earth from barren- 
ness, and to kill all noxious animals — snakes, lizards and such 
like creeping things — which Ahriman had created. Above all, 
man must be truthful, because Ahura, on whose side he battles, is 
the god of sincerity and truth. To lie was to be a follower of 
Ahriman, the god of deceit and lies. "The most disgraceful thing 
in the world," affirms Herodotus in his account of the Persians, 
"they think, is to tell a lie." In his report of the Persian system 
of education he says : "The boys are taught to ride, to draw the 
bow, and to speak the truth." I was not wicked, nor a liar, is the 
substance and purport of many a record of the ancient kings. 
The Persian rulers, shaming in this all other nations ancient and 
modern, kept sacredly their pledged word ; only once were they 
ever even charged with having broken a treaty with a foreign power. 

References. Maspero, G., The Passing of the Empires, chap. vi. Rawlin- 
son, G., Five Great Monarchies, vol. iii, pp. 84-539. Sayce, A. H., The Ancient 
E?npires of the East, chaps, iv, v. Jackson, A. V. W., Zoroaster, the Prophet of 
Ancient Iran. Hall, H. R. H., Ancient History of the A r ear East, chap, xii, 
pp. 551-579. Benjamin, S. G. W., Persia, chaps, vii-xi. See Herodotus, V, 
52-54, for the Royal Road from Susa to Sardis, and Harper, R. F., Assyrian 
and Babylonian Literature, pp. 174-187, for the Behistun Inscription of Darius. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE EAST ASIAN PEOPLES 

71. The East Asian Circle of Culture. While in Egypt and 
western Asia there were slowly developing the Egyptian, the 
Babylonian-Assyrian, the Syrian, and the Persian cultures of which 
we have given some account in the preceding chapters, there were 
developing at the other end of Asia, in India and China, civili- 
zations which throughout this early period were in the main un- 
influenced by the cultures of the West. Before following further 
the development of civilization in the Western lands, we must 
cast a glance upon these civilizations of the Far East. 1 

I. INDIA 

72. The Aryan Invasion. At the time of the great Indo- 
European dispersion some Aryan bands, journeying from the 
northwest, settled first the plains of the Indus and then occupied 
the valley of the Ganges. They reached the banks of the latter 
river as early probably as 1500 b.c. These fair-skinned invaders 
found the land occupied by a dark-skinned, non-Aryan race, whom 
they either subjugated and reduced to serfdom, or drove out of 
the great river valleys into the mountains and the half-desert 
plains of the peninsula. 2 

73. The Development of the System of Castes. The conflict 
and mingling of races in northern India caused the population 
to become divided into four social grades or hereditary classes, 

1 Besides the Hindus and the Chinese, the Japanese are a third important -people 
belonging to the East Asian sphere of culture, but as they did not emerge from the 
obscurity of prehistoric times until about the beginning of the fifth century of our era, 
when writing was introduced into Japan from the continent, their true history falls out- 
side the period covered by the present chapter. 

2 The unsubdued tribes of southern India, known as Dravidians, retained their native 
speech. Over 54,000,000 of the present population of India are non-Aryan in language. 

47 



48 THE EAST ASIAN PEOPLES [§ 74 

based on color. These were ( i ) the nobles or warriors ; ( 2 ) the 
Brahmans or priests; 1 (3) the peasants and traders; and (4) the 
Sudras. The last were of non-Aryan descent. Below these several 
grades were the Pariahs or outcasts, the lowest and most despised 
of the native races. The marked characteristics of this graded 
society were that intermarriage between the classes was forbidden, 
and that the members of different classes must not eat together 
nor come into personal contact. 

The development of this system, which is known as the system 
of castes, is one of the most important facts in the history of India. 
The system, however, has undergone great modification in the 
lapse of ages, and is now less rigid than in earlier times. At the 
present day it rests largely on an industrial basis, the members of 
every trade and occupation forming a distinct caste. The number 
of castes is now about two thousand. 

74. The Vedas ; the Religion. The most important of the 
sacred books of the Hindus are called the Vedas. They are written 
in the Sanscrit language, which is the oldest form of Aryan speech 
preserved to us. 

The early religion of the Indian Aryans was a worship of the 
powers of nature. As time passed, this nature worship developed 
into a form of religion known as Brahmanism. It is so named 
from Brahma, which is the Hindu name for the Supreme Being. 
Below Brahma there are many gods. 

A chief doctrine of Brahmanism is that of rebirth. According 
to this teaching the good man is at death reborn into some higher 
caste or better state, while the evil man is reborn into a lower 
caste, or perhaps his soul enters some unclean animal, or is im- 
prisoned in a shrub or tree. This doctrine of rebirth is known 
as the transmigration of souls. 

75. Buddhism. In the fifth century before our era a great 
teacher and reformer named Gautama (about 557-477 B.C.), but 
better known as Buddha, that is, "the Enlightened," arose in 
India. He was born a prince, but legend represents him as being 
so touched by the universal misery of mankind that he voluntarily 

1 At a later period the Brahmans arrogated to themselves the highest rank. 



§ 76] BUDDHISM 49 

abandoned the luxury of his home and spent his life in seeking 
out and making known to men a new and better way of salvation. 
His creed was very simple. What he taught the people was that 
they should seek salvation not through self-torture and the observ- 
ance of religious rites and ceremonies but through honesty and 
purity of heart, through charity and tenderness and compassion 
toward all creatures that have life. 

Buddhism gradually gained ascendancy over Brahmanism ; but 
after some centuries the Brahmans regained their power, and by 
the eighth century after Christ the faith of Buddha had died out 
or had been crowded out of almost every part of India. 

But Buddhism, like Christianity, has a profound missionary 
spirit, and during the very period when India was being lost the 
missionaries of the reformed creed were spreading the teachings 
of their master among the peoples of all the countries of eastern 
Asia, so that today Buddhism is the religion of almost one third 
of the human race. Buddha has probably nearly as many followers 
as both Christ and Mohammed together. 

II. CHINA 

76. General Remarks. China was the cradle of a very old 
civilization, older perhaps than that of any other lands save Egypt 
and Babylonia ; yet China has not until recently exercised any di- 
rect influence upon the general current of history. All through the 
later ancient and mediaeval times the country lay, vague and mys- 
terious, in the haze of the world's horizon. During the Middle 
Ages the land was known to Europe under the name of Cathay. 

The government of ancient China was a parental monarchy. 
The emperor was the father of his people. But though an absolute 
prince, he dared not rule tyrannically ; he must rule justly and 
in accordance with the ancient customs. 

77. Chinese Writing. The art of writing was known among 
the Chinese as early as 2000 b.c. The system employed is cu- 
riously cumbrous. In the absence of an alphabet each word of the 
language is represented upon the written page by means of a 



50 THE EAST ASIAN PEOPLES L§ 78 

symbol, or combination of symbols ; this, of course, requires that 
there be as many symbols or characters as there are words in the 
language. The number sanctioned by good use is about twenty- 
five thousand ; but counting obsolete signs, the number amounts 
to over fifty thousand. A knowledge of five or six thousand 
characters, however, enables one to read and write without diffi- 
culty. The nature of the signs shows conclusively that the Chinese 
system of writing, like that of all others with which we are ac- 
quainted, was at first pure picture writing. Time and use have 
worn the pictorial symbols to their present form. 

Printing from blocks was practiced in China as early as the 
sixth century of our era, and printing from movable types as early 
as the tenth or eleventh century, — that is to say, about four 
hundred years before the same art was invented in Europe. 

78. The Teacher Confucius. The great teacher of the Chinese 
was Confucius ( 55 1-478 B.C.). He was not a prophet or revealer ; 
he laid no claims to a supernatural knowledge of God or of the 
hereafter ; he said nothing of an Infinite Spirit, and but little of 
a future life. His cardinal precepts were obedience to parents and 
superiors and reverence for the ancients and imitation of their 
virtues. He gave the Chinese the Golden Rule, stated negatively : 
"What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." 
The influence of Confucius has been greater than that of any other 
teacher excepting Christ and perhaps Buddha. 

79. Chinese Literature. The most highly prized portion of 
Chinese literature is embraced in what is known as the Five 
Classics and the Four Books, called collectively the Nine Classics. 
A considerable part of the material of the Five Classics was col- 
lected and edited by Confucius. The Four Books, though not writ- 
ten by Confucius, yet bear the impress of his mind and thought, 
just as the Gospels teach the mind of Christ. The cardinal virtue 
inculcated by all the sacred writings is filial piety. The second 
great moral requirement is conformity to ancient custom. 

It would be difficult to exaggerate the influence which the Nine 
Classics have had upon the Chinese nation. For more than two 
thousand years these writings have been the Chinese Bible. But 



§80] CHINESE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 51 

their influence has not been wholly good. The Chinese in strictly 
obeying the injunction to walk in the old ways, to conform to the 
customs of the ancients, have failed to mark out new footpaths 
for themselves ; hence, probably, one cause of the unprogressive 
character of Chinese civilization. 

80. Education and Civil-Service Competitive Examinations. 
China has a very ancient educational system. The land was filled 
with schools, academies, and colleges more than a thousand years 
before our era. Until recently a knowledge of the sacred books 
was the sole passport to civil office and public employment. All 
candidates for places in the government had to pass a series of 
competitive examinations in the Nine Classics. At the opening 
of the present century there were between two and three million 
persons studying for these literary tests. 1 

81. The Chinese outside the Western Circle of Ancient 
Culture. Though constituting so important a factor in the East 
Asian circle of culture, the Chinese during ancient times, as we 
have already intimated, did not contribute any historically im- 
portant elements to the civilization of the West Asian and Mediter- 
ranean lands. What contributions this great people will make to 
the general civilization of the future, the future alone will disclose. 

References. For India : Ragozin, Z. A., The Story of Vedic India. Hunter, 
W. W., A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, chaps, i-vi. Dutt, R. C, The 
Civilization of India, chaps, i-v. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India and Buddhism, 
its History and Literature. Hopkins, E. W., The Religions of India. 

For China : Williams, S. W., A History of China, chap, i (this work com- 
prises the historical chapters of the author's The Middle Kingdom). Gowen, 
H. H., An Outline History of China, pt. i, earlier chapters. Legge, J., The 
Religions of China. GILES, H. A., The Civilization of China, chaps, i-iii. De 
GROOT, J. J. M., The Religion of the Chinese and Religion in China. Martin, 
W. A. P., The Lore of Cathay. Geil, W. E., The Great Wall of China 2 (valuable 
for its illustrations ; the literary qualities of the book cannot be commended). 

1 In the year 1905 the Dowager Empress by edict ordered that in future examina- 
tions the sciences of the West should be substituted for the ancient classics. 

2 The Great Wall is one of the most remarkable works of man. This immense ram- 
part, which was built as a barrier against the incursions of nomads, extends for about 
1500 miles along the northern frontier of the country. Its construction was begun in the 
third century B.C. 



DIVISION II, GREECE 
CHAPTER IX 

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 

82. Hellas. The ancient people whom we call Greeks called 
themselves Hellenes and their land Hellas. But this term Hellas 
as used by the ancient Greeks embraced much more than modern 
Greece. "Wherever were Hellenes there was Hellas." Thus 
the name included not only Greece proper and the islands of 
the adjoining seas but also the Hellenic cities in Asia Minor, 
in southern Italy, and in Sicily, besides many other Greek settle- 
ments scattered up and down the Mediterranean and along the 
shores of the Hellespont and the Euxine. Yet Greece proper was 
the real homeland of the Hellenes and the actual center of Greek 
life and culture. 

83. Divisions of Greece. Long arms of the sea divide the 
Greek peninsula into three parts, called Northern, Central, and 
Southern Greece. The southern portion, joined to the mainland 
by the Isthmus of Corinth, was called by the ancients the Pelopon- 
nesus, that is, the Island of Pelops, from the fabled founder there 
of a mythic line of kings. 

Northern Greece included the ancient districts of Thessaly and 
Epirus. Thessaly consists mainly of a large and beautiful valley, 
walled in on all sides by rugged mountains. The district of Epirus 
stretched along the Ionian Sea on the west. In the deep recesses 
of its forests of oak was situated a renowned oracle of Zeus. 

Central Greece was divided into eleven districts, among which 
were Phocis, Bceotia, and Attica. In Phocis was the city of Delphi, 
famous for its oracle and temple ; in Boeotia the city of Thebes ; 
and in Attica was the brilliant Athens. The Attic land, as we 
shall learn, was the central point of Greek history. 

52 



§83] DIVISIONS OF GREECE S3 

The chief districts of Southern Greece were Corinthia, Arcadia, 
Argolis, Laconia, and Elis. 

The main part of Corinthia formed the isthmus uniting the 
Peloponnesus to Central Greece. Its chief city was Corinth, the 
gateway of the peninsula. 

Arcadia, sometimes called "the Switzerland of the Pelopon- 
nesus," formed the heart of the peninsula. This region consists 




Fig. 27. The Plain of Olympia. (From Boetticher, Olympia) 

The valley of the Alpheus in Elis, where were held the celebrated Olympic games 

of broken uplands shut in by irregular mountain walls. The in- 
habitants of this district, because thus isolated, were, in the 
general intellectual movement of the Greek race, left far behind 
the dwellers in the more open and favored portions of Greece. 
It is the rustic, simple life of the Arcadians that has given the 
term Arcadian its meaning of pastoral simplicity. 

Argolis formed a tongue of land jutting out into the ^Egean. 
This region is noted as the home of an early prehistoric culture, 
and holds today the remains of cities — Mycenae and Tiryns — 
the kings of which built great palaces, possessed vast treasures in 
gold and silver, and held wide sway centuries before Athens had 
made for herself a name and place in history. 



54 THE LAND AND THE PEOP.LE [§ 84 

Laconia, or Lacedaemon, embraced the southeastern part of the 
Peloponnesus. This district was ruled by the city of Sparta, the 
great rival of Athens. 

Elis, a district on the western side of the Peloponnesus, is 
chiefly noted as the consecrated land which held Olympia, the 
great assembling place of the Greeks for the celebration of the 
most famous of their festivals, — the so-called Olympian games. 

84. Mountains. The Cambunian Mountains form a lofty wall 
along a considerable reach of the northern frontier of Greece. 
Branching off at right angles to these mountains is the Pindus 
range, which runs south into Central Greece. 

On the northern border of Thessaly is Mount Olympus, the 
most celebrated mountain of the peninsula. The Greeks thought 
it the highest mountain in the world (its height is about 9700 
feet), and believed that its cloudy summit was the abode of 
the gods. 

South of Olympus, close by the sea, are Ossa and Pelion, cele- 
brated in fable as the mountains which the giants, in their war 
against the gods, piled one upon another in order to scale 
the heavens. 

Parnassus and Helicon, in Central Greece, — beautiful moun- 
tains clad with trees and vines and filled with fountains,— were 
believed to be haunts of the Muses. Near Athens are Hymettus, 
praised for its honey, and Pentelicus, renowned for its marbles. 

The Peloponnesus is rugged with mountains that radiate in all 
directions from the central country of Arcadia. 

85. The Rivers and Lakes of the Land. Greece has no rivers 
large enough to be of service to commerce. Most of the streams 
are scarcely more than winter torrents. Among the most impor- 
tant streams are the Alpheus in Elis, on the banks of which the 
Olympian games were celebrated, and the Eurotas, which threads 
the central valley of Laconia. The lakes of Greece are in the 
main scarcely more than stagnant pools, the backwater of spring 
freshets. 

86. Islands about Greece. Very much of the history of Greece 
is intertwined with the islands that lie about the mainland. On 




GENERAL, REFERENCE MAP 
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ANCIENT GREECE 



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§ 87] INFLUENCE OF THE LAND 55 

the east, in the ^Egean Sea, are the Cyclades, so called because 
they form an irregular circle round the sacred island of Delos, 
where was a very celebrated shrine of Apollo. Between the 
Cyclades and Asia Minor lie the Sporades, which islands, as the 
name implies, are sown irregularly over that part of the JEgean. 

Just off the coast of Attica is a large island called by the 
ancients Eubcea. Close to the Asian shores are the large islands 
of Lemnos, Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and Rhodes. In the Mediter- 
ranean, midway between Greece and Egypt, is the large island of 
Crete, noted in legend for its Labyrinth and its legislator Minos. 
To the west of Greece lie the Ionian Islands, the largest of which 
was called Corey ra, now Corfu. 

87. Influence of the Land upon the People. The physical 
geography of a country has much to do with molding the char- 
acter and shaping the history of its people. Mountains, isolating 
neighboring communities, foster the spirit of local patriotism ; 
the sea, inviting abroad and rendering intercourse with distant 
countries easy, awakens the spirit of adventure and develops 
commercial enterprise. 

Now Greece is at once a mountainous and a maritime country. 
Mountain walls fence it off into a great number of isolated dis- 
tricts, and this is probably one reason why the Greeks formed so 
many small independent states, and never could be brought to 
feel or to act as a single nation. 1 

The Greek peninsula is, moreover, by deep arms and bays of 
the sea, converted into what is in effect an archipelago. Hence 
its people were early tempted to a seafaring life, — tempted to 
follow what Homer calls the "wet paths" of Ocean, to see whither 
they might lead. Intercourse with the old civilizations of the 
Orient, which Greece faces, stirred the naturally quick and ver- 
satile Greek intellect to early and vigorous thought. The islands 
strewn with seeming carelessness through the ^Egean Sea were 
"stepping-stones," which invited intercourse between the settlers 

1 But we must be careful not to exaggerate the influence of geography upon Greek 
history. For the root of feelings and sentiments which were far more potent than geo- 
graphical conditions in keeping the Greek cities apart, see sect. 98. 



56 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE [§ 88 

of Greece and the inhabitants of the delightful coast countries of 
Asia Minor, and thus blended the life and history of the opposite 
shores. 

How much the sea did in developing enterprise and intelligence 
in the cities of the maritime districts of Greece is shown by the 
contrast which the advancing culture of these regions presented 
to the lagging civilization of the peoples of the interior districts ; 
as, for instance, those of Arcadia. 

88. The Hellenes. The historic inhabitants of the land we 
have described were called by the Romans Greeks ; but, as we 
have already learned, they called themselves Hellenes, from their 
fabled ancestor Hellen. They were divided into four tribes, — 
the Achaeans, the Ionians, the Dorians, and the ^Eolians. These 
several tribes, united by bonds of language and religion, always 
regarded themselves as members of a single family. All non- 
Hellenic peoples they called Barbarians. 1 When the mists of 
prehistoric times first rise from Greece, about the beginning of 
the eighth century B.C., we discover the several Hellenic families 
in possession of Greece proper, of the islands of the ^gean, and 
of the western coast of Asia Minor. Respecting their prehistoric 
migrations and settlements we have little or no certain knowledge. 
In the next chapter we shall see how they pictured to themselves 
the past of the .fligean lands. 

References. Curtius, E., vol. i, pp. 9-46. 12 Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), 
vol. ii, pp. 141-163. Abbott, E., vol. i, chap. i. Holm, A., vol. i, chap. ii. 
Bury, J. B., History of Greece, pp. 1-5. Tozer, H. F., Classical Geography 
(Primer). Richardson, R. B., Vacation Days in Greece (Dr. Richardson was 
for many years Director of the American School of Archaeology at Athens; 
his delightful sketches of excursions to interesting historical sites will give a 
much better idea of the physical features of Greece than all the formal descrip- 
tions of the geographers). Manatt, J. I., Aegean Days (has pictures of the 
life and scenes of the isles of the /Egean by one " smitten with the love 
of Greece "). 

1 At first this term meant scarcely more than " unintelligible folk"; but later it came 
to express aversion and contempt. 

2 We cite the standard extended histories of Greece and of Rome by giving merely 
the author's name with volume and chapter or page. 



CHAPTER X 
GREEK LEGENDS ; THE iEGEAN CIVILIZATION J 

89. Character and Value of the Legends. The Greeks of 
historic times possessed a great store of wonderful legends and 
tales of the foretime in Greece. Though many of these stories 
were doubtless in large part a pure creation of the Greek imagi- 
nation, still for two reasons the historical student must make him- 
self familiar with them. First, because the historic Greeks believed 
them to be true, and hence were greatly influenced by them. What 
has been said of the war against Troy, namely, "If not itself a 
fact, the Trojan War became the cause of innumerable facts," 
is true of the whole body of Greek legends. These tales were 
recited by the historian, dramatized by the tragic poet, cut in 
marble by the sculptor, and depicted by the painter on the walls 
of portico and temple. They thus constituted a very vital part 
of the education of every Greek. 

Second, a knowledge of these legends is of value to the student 
of Greek history because recent discoveries in the ^gean lands 
prove that at least some of them contain elements of truth, that 
they are memories, though confused memories, of actual events. 

Therefore, as a prelude to the story we have to tell we shall 
in the present chapter repeat some of these tales, selecting chiefly 
those that contain references to a wonderful civilization which is 
represented as having existed in the ^Egean lands in prehistoric 
times, but which long before authentic Greek history opens had 
vanished, leaving behind barely more than a dim memory. 

1 The prehistoric period in Greece was formerly called the My caiman Age, for the rea- 
son that Mycenae, in Argolis, was believed to have been the center of the brilliant Bronze 
Age culture which characterized the second millennium b. c. in the /Egean lands. Discov- 
eries in Crete, however, show that island to have been the radiating point of this civili- 
zation, and the /Egean islands and coast lands its chief arena, hence the name /Egean 
Civilization by which it is now generally designated. The creators and bearers of this 
civilization were a non-Greek race. 

57 



58 GREEK LEGENDS ; ^GEAN CIVILIZATION [§ 90 

90. Oriental Immigrants. The legends of the Greeks represent 
the early growth of civilization among them as having been pro- 
moted by the settlement in Greece of oriental immigrants, who 
brought with them the arts and culture of the East. Thus from 
Egypt, legend affirms, came Cecrops, bringing with him the arts, 
learning, and priestly wisdom of the Nile valley. He is represented 
as the builder of Cecropia, which became afterwards the citadel 
of the illustrious city of Athens. From Phoenicia Cadmus brought 
the letters of the alphabet, and founded the city of Thebes. 

The nucleus of fact in these legends is probably this, — that the 
European Greeks received certain of the elements of their culture 
from the East. Without doubt they got from thence letters, a 
gift of incomparable value, and hints in art, besides suggestions 
and facts in philosophy and science. 

91. The Heroes ; Heracles. The Greeks believed that their 
ancestors were a race of heroes of divine or semi-divine lineage. 
Every tribe, district, city, and village even, preserved traditions 
of its heroes, whose wonderful exploits were commemorated in 
song and story. 

Heracles was the greatest of the national heroes of the Greeks. 
He is represented as performing twelve superhuman labors, and 
as being at last translated from a blazing pyre to a place among 
the immortal gods. Heracles was originally a sun-god. Trans- 
ferred from the heavens to the earth he became the personification 
or embodiment of the moral qualities of heroism, endurance, and 
self-sacrifice in the service of others. 

92. Minos the Lawgiver and Sea-King of Crete. Many of 
the Greek legends cluster about the island of Crete. These have 
much to do with a great ruler named Minos, who is represented 
as a lawgiver of divine wisdom, the founder of the first great 
maritime state in the JEgean, and the suppressor of piracy in 
those waters. 

This legend preserves the memory of a Cretan kingdom which 
was great and powerful in the early part of the second millennium 
b.c. The center of this early Mgean culture, which in some 
respects was not inferior to the contemporary civilizations of 




Fig. 28. The Vaphio Cups a*\d their Scrolls 

These famous cups, masterpieces of the art of the prehistoric /Egean civilization, were 

found in a tomb at Vaphio, in Laconia, in 1889. They were doubtless of Cretan origin 

and represent a brilliant culture that centuries before the opening of classical Greek 

history had vanished, leaving behind only a vague memory in tradition 



§93] 



THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION 



59 



Egypt and Babylonia, was Cnossus. Here have been unearthed the 
remains of a great, many-chambered palace and other memorials 
of a wonderful civilization which was in its bloom a thousand 
years and more before the beginnings of recorded Greek history. 

93. The Argonautic Expedition. Besides the labors and ex- 
ploits of single heroes, Greek legends tell of various memorable 
and arduous enter- 
prises which were 
conducted by bands 
of heroes. Among 
these undertakings 
were the Argonautic 
Expedition and the 
Siege of Troy. 

The tale of the 
Argonauts is told 
with many a varia- 
tion in the legends of 
the Greeks. Jason, a 
prince of Thessaly, 
with fifty companion 
heroes, among whom 
were Heracles, The- 
seus, and Orpheus, — 
the last a musician 

of superhuman skill, the music of whose lyre moved trees and 
stones, — set sail in "a fifty-oared galley" called the Argo (hence 
the name Argonauts, given to the heroes), in search of a "golden 
fleece" which was fabled to be nailed to a tree and watched by a 
dragon in a grove on the eastern shore of the Euxine — an inhospi- 
table region of unknown terrors. The expedition was successful, 
and after many wonderful adventures the heroes returned in 
triumph with the sacred relic. 

In its primitive form this tale was doubtless an oriental nature 
myth ; but in the shape given it by the Greek story-tellers it 
may, divested of its many poetical embellishments, be taken as 




Fig. 29. Theater and " Dancing-Place " (?) 
Excavated at Cnossus by Dr. Evans 

Also did the glorious lame god devise a dancing-place 

like unto that which once in wide Knosos Daidalos 

wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses. — Iliad 

(tr. Lang and others), xviii, 590-592 



60 GREEK LEGENDS ; ^GEAN CIVILIZATION [§ 94 

symbolizing the explorations and adventures of the prehistoric 
Greeks or their predecessors in the North JEgean and the Euxine. 

94. The Trojan War (legendary date, 1194-1184 B.C.). The 
Trojan War was an event about which gathered a great circle of 
tales and poems, all full of an undying interest and fascination. 

Uios, or Troy, was a strong-walled city which had grown up in 
Asia Minor just south of the Hellespont. The traditions tell how 
Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, visited the Spartan king 
Menelaus, and ungenerously requited his hospitality by secretly 
bearing away to Troy his wife Helen, famous for her rare beauty. 

All the heroes of Greece flew to arms to avenge the wrong. 
A host of a hundred thousand warriors was speedily gathered. 
Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus and king of Mycenae, "wide- 
wayed and rich in gold," was chosen leader of the expedition. 
Under him were the "lion-hearted Achilles" of Thessaly, the 
"crafty Odysseus," king of Ithaca, the aged Nestor, and many 
more — the most valiant heroes of all Hellas. Twelve hundred 
galleys bore the gathered clans across the JEgean, from Aulis to 
the Trojan shores. For ten years the Greeks and their allies 
held in close siege the city of Priam. The place was at last 
taken through a device of the artful Odysseus, and was sacked 
and burned to the ground. 

There is probably a nucleus of fact in this, the most elaborate 
and interesting of the Grecian legends. We may believe it to be 
the dim recollection of a prehistoric conflict between the Greeks 
and the natives of Asia Minor, arising from the attempt of the 
former to secure a foothold upon the coast. That there really 
was in prehistoric times in the Troad a city which was the strong- 
hold of a rich and powerful royal race has been placed beyond 
doubt by the excavations and discoveries of Dr. Schliemann 
and others. 1 

1 We may reasonably believe that the basis of the power and riches of these rulers 
was the control which their strategic position at the entrance of the water passage to the 
Propontis and the Euxine gave them over the trade of those regions. Troy in prehistoric 
times seems to have held the same relation to this northern trade that Byzantium, 
located at the northern entrance to the Bosphorus, held throughout the classical Greek 
period, and which Constantinople holds today. 



§95] REFERENCES . 61 

95. The Home-coming of the Greek Chieftains. After the 
fall of Troy the Greek chieftains and princes returned home. The 
legends represent the gods as withdrawing their protection from 
the hitherto favored heroes, because they had not spared the altars 
of the Trojans. Consequently many of them were driven in end- 
less wanderings over sea and land. Homer's Odyssey portrays 
the sufferings of the "much-enduring Odysseus," impelled by 
divine wrath to long journeyings through strange seas. 

In some cases, according to the tradition, advantage had been 
taken of the absence of the princes, and their thrones had been 
usurped. Thus in Argolis, ^Egisthus had won the unholy love of 
Clytemnestra, wife and queen of Agamemnon, who on his return 
was murdered by the guilty couple. A tradition current among 
the Greeks of later times pointed out Mycenae as the place where 
the unfortunate king and those slain with him were buried. 1 

References. Gayley, C. M., The Classical Myths in the English Literature 
and in Art (rev. ed., 191 1), chaps, xiv-xxiv (gives the tales of the older and 
the younger Greek heroes, including the legends of the Argonauts (pp. 229- 
133), the Seven against Thebes (pp. 265-268), and the Trojan War (pp. 277- 
306)). For an admirable summary of the works of Dr. H. Schliemann (Troy 
and its Remains, 1875, Mycence, 1878, etc.) see Schuchhardt, C, Schliemann^s 
Excavatiofis. Gardner, P., New Chapters i?i Greek History, chaps, i-v. The 
following works summarize and interpret the new discoveries in Crete : Hall, 
H. R. H., sEgean Archeology ; Mosso, A., The Palaces of Crete ; Baikie, ]., The 
Sea-kings of Crete ; and Fowler, H. N. and Wheeler, J. R., Greek Archeology, 
chap. i. 

1 In 1876 Dr. Schliemann began excavations at Mycenae. The most interesting of his 
discoveries here were several tombs holding the remains of nineteen bodies, which were 
surrounded by an im- 

withgoldandsilver.and *, T _ _. , , 

& , , frio. 30. Inlaid Sword Blade found at Mvcex.f. 

personal ornaments of J 

every kind. There were 

one hundred pounds in weight of gold articles alone. This discovery assures us that the 

ancient legends, in so far as they represent Mycenae as having been in early pre-Dorian 

times the seat of an influential and wealthy royal race, rest on a basis of actual fact. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE HERITAGE OF THE HISTORIC GREEKS 

96. A Rich and Mixed Heritage. The Greeks when they 
appeared in history, in the eighth century B.C., were the bearers 
of an already advanced culture. They possessed well-developed 
political and religious institutions, a wonderfully copious language, 
a rich and varied mythology, an unrivaled epic literature, and an 
art which, though immature, was yet full of promise. 

This was indeed a rich heritage. It was in part a bequest from 
their own foretime, and in part a legacy from that earlier JEgean 
civilization mentioned in the preceding chapter. There were 
mingled in it also elements derived directly from oriental cultures. 
But all these non-Greek racial and cultural contributions had 
before historic times received the deep impress of the Hellenic 
spirit. This will become evident as we now proceed to examine 
somewhat in detail this heritage of the historic Hellenes, and 
note how different a product it is from anything we have found 
before. 

97. The City-State. The light that falls upon Greece in the 
eighth and seventh centuries b.c. shows most of Greece proper, 
the shore-lands of Asia Minor, and many of the ^Egean islands 
filled with cities. Respecting the nature of these cities we must 
say a word, for it is with them — with cities — that Greek history 
has to do. 

In the first place, each of these cities was an independent com- 
munity, like a modern nation. It was a city-state. It made war 
and peace and held diplomatic relations with its neighbors. Its 
citizens were aliens in every other city. 

In the second place, these city-states were, as we think of inde- 
pendent states, very small. So far as we know, no city in Greece 
proper, save Athens, ever had over twenty thousand arm-bearing 

62 



§ 98] FEELING OF THE GREEK FOR HIS CITY 63 

citizens. In most cases each consisted of nothing more than a 
single walled town with a little encircling zone of farming and 
pasture land. Sometimes, however, the city-state embraced, be- 
sides the central town, a large number of smaller places. Thus 
the city-state of Athens, in historic times, included all Attica 
with its hundred or more villages and settlements. In most other 
cases, however, the outlying villages, if any, were so close to the 
walled town that all their inhabitants, in the event of a sudden 
raid by enemies, could get to the city gates in one or two 
hours at most. 

In the third place, each of these early cities was made up of 
groups — clans, phratries or brotherhoods (groups of closely united 
families), and tribes — which were a survival from the tribal 
age of the Greeks, the age before they began to live in cities. It 
was at first only members of these groups who enjoyed the rights 
of citizenship. 

98. Feeling of the Greek for his City. We cannot understand 
Greek history unless we get at the outset a clear idea of the feel- 
ings of a Greek toward the city of which he was a member. It 
was his country, the fatherland for which he lived and for which 
he died. Exile from his native city was to him a fate scarcely less 
dreaded than death. This devotion of the Greek to his city was 
the sentiment which corresponds to patriotism amongst us, only, 
being a narrower as well as a religious feeling, it was much more 
intense. 

It was mainly this strong city feeling among the Greeks which 
prevented them from ever uniting to form a single nation. The 
history of Greece is the history of modern Europe in miniature. 
It is, in general, the history of a great number of independent 
cities wearing one another out with their never-ending disputes 
and wars arising from a thousand and one petty causes of rivalry 
and hatred. But it was this very thing that made life in the Greek 
cities so stimulating and strenuous, and that developed so wonder- 
fully the faculties of the Greek citizen. In a word, the wonderful 
thing which we call Greek civilization was the flower and fruitage 
of the city-state. 



64 THE HERITAGE OF THE HISTORIC GREEKS [§ 99 



99. Ideas of the Greeks respecting the System of the Universe. 
Forming another important element of the inheritance of the 
historic Greeks were their religious ideas and institutions. In 
speaking of these we shall begin with a word respecting their 
ideas in regard to the system of the universe. 

The Greeks supposed the earth to be, as it appears, a plane, 
circular in form like a shield. Around it ebbed and flowed the 

"mighty strength 
of the ocean 
river," a stream 
broad and deep, 
beyond which on 
all sides lay realms 
of darkness and 
terror. The heav- 
ens were a solid 
vault or dome, 
whose edge shut 
down close upon 
the earth. Be- 
neath the earth, 
reached by sub- 
terranean pas- 
sages, was Hades, 
a vast region, 
the realm of de- 
parted souls. Still beneath this was the prison Tartarus, a pit 
deep and dark, made fast by strong gates of brass and iron. 

The sun was an archer god, borne in a fiery chariot up and 
down the steep pathway of the skies. In the western region were 
the Elysian Fields, the abodes of the shades of heroes and poets. 

100. The Olympian Council. At the head of the Greek deities 
there was a council of twelve members, comprising six gods and 
six goddesses. Chief among these male deities were Zeus, the 
father of gods and men ; Poseidon, ruler of the sea ; and Apollo, 
or Phoebus, the god of light, of music, and of prophecy. 




The World according to Homer 



§ 101] THE DELPHIAN ORACLE 65 

Among the female divinities were Hera, the proud and jealous 
queen of Zeus; Athena, or Pallas, — who sprang full-grown from 
the forehead of Zeus, — the goddess of wisdom and the patroness of 
the domestic arts ; and Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. 1 

These great deities were simply magnified human beings. They 
surpassed mortals rather in power than in size of body. Their 
abode was Mount Olympus and the airy regions above the earth. 

101. The Delphian Oracle. The most precious part perhaps 
of the religious heritage of the historic Greeks from the misty 
Hellenic foretime was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The Greeks 
believed that in the early ages the gods were wont to visit the 
earth and mingle with men. But even in Homer's time this famil- 
iar intercourse was a thing of the past, — a tradition of a golden 
age that had passed away. In historic times, though the gods 
often revealed their will and intentions through signs and portents, 
still they granted a more special communication of counsel through 
what were known as oracles. The favored spots where these com- 
munications were made were called oracles, as were also the 
responses there received. 

The most renowned of the Greek oracles was that at Delphi, in 
Phocis. Here, from a deep fissure in the rocks, arose vapors, 
which were thought to be the inspiring breath of Apollo. Over 
this spot was erected a temple in honor of the Revealer. The com- 
munication was generally received by the Pythia, or priestess, 
seated upon a tripod placed above the orifice. As she became over- 
powered by the vapors, she uttered the message of the god. These 
mutterings of the Pythia were taken down by attendant priests, 
interpreted, and written in verse. Some of the responses of the 
oracle contained plain and wholesome advice ; but very many of 

1 Besides the great gods and goddesses that constituted the Olympian Council, 
there was an almost infinite number of other deities, celestial personages, and mon- 
sters neither human nor divine. Hades ruled over the lower realms ; Dionysus was the 
god of wine ; the goddess Nemesis was the punisher of crime, and particularly the 
queller of the proud and arrogant ; jEolus was the ruler of the winds, which he confined 
in a cave secured by mighty gates. There were nine Muses, inspirers of art and song. 
Three Fates allotted life and death, and three Furies (Eumenides, or Erinyes) 
avenged crime, especially murder and sacrilegious crimes. Besides these there were the 
Centaurs, the Cyclopes, the Harpies, the Gorgons, and a thousand others. 



66 THE HERITAGE OF THE HISTORIC GREEKS [§ 102 

them, particularly those that implied a knowledge of the future, 
were made obscure and ingeniously ambiguous, so that they might 
correspond with the event however affairs should turn. Thus 
Croesus at the time he made war on Cyrus (sect. 66) was told in 
response to his inquiry that if he undertook the war he would de- 
stroy a great empire. He did, indeed, — but the empire was his own. 

The oracle of Delphi gained a celebrity wide as the world. It 
was often consulted by the monarchs of Asia and the people of 
Rome in times of extreme danger and perplexity. Among the 
Greeks scarcely any undertaking was entered upon without the 
will and sanction of the oracle being first sought. 

102. The Olympian Games. Another of the most character- 
istic of the religious institutions of the Greeks which they inherited 




Fig. 31. Racing with Four-Horse Chariots. (From a vase painting 
of the fifth century b. c.) 

from prehistoric times was the sacred games celebrated at Olympia 
in Elis, in honor of the Olympian Zeus. The origin of this festival 
is lost in the obscurity of tradition ; but by the opening of the 
eighth century b.c. it had assumed national importance. The 
games were held every fourth year, and the interval between two 
successive festivals was known as an Olympiad. 

The contests consisted of foot races, boxing, wrestling, and 
other athletic games. Later, chariot racing was introduced, and 
became the most popular of all the contests. The competitors 
must be of Hellenic race; must have undergone special training 
in the gymnasium ; and must, moreover, be unblemished by any 
crime against the state or sin against the gods. Spectators from 
all parts of the world crowded to the festival. 

The victor was crowned with a garland of sacred olive ; heralds 
proclaimed his name abroad ; his native city received him as a 
conqueror, sometimes through a breach made in the city walls; 



§ 103] INFLUENCE OF THE GRECIAN GAMES 67 

his statues, executed by eminent artists, were erected at Olympia 
and in his own city ; and poets and orators vied with the 
artist in perpetuating his name and triumphs as the name and 
triumphs of one who had reflected immortal honor upon his 
native state. 

Besides the Olympian games there were transmitted from pre- 
historic times the germs at least of three other national festivals. 
These were the Pythian, held in honor of Apollo, near his 
shrine and oracle at Delphi ; the Nemean, celebrated in honor 
of Zeus, at Nemea, in Argolis ; and the Isthmian, observed in 
honor of Poseidon, 
on the Isthmus of 
Corinth. 

103. Influence of 
the Grecian Games. 
For more than a 
thousand years all 
these national fes- 
tivals, particularly 
those celebrated at Fig. 32. Greek Runners 

Olympia, exerted an 

immense influence upon the social, religious, and literary life of 
Hellas. They enkindled among the widely scattered Hellenic 
states and colonies a common literary taste and enthusiasm ; for 
into all the four great festivals, save the Olympian, were intro- 
duced, sooner or later, contests in poetry, oratory, and history. 
During the festivals poets and historians read their choicest pro- 
ductions, and artists exhibited their masterpieces. The extraor- 
dinary honors accorded to the victors stimulated the contestants 
to the utmost, and strung to the highest tension every power 
of body and mind. 

Particularly were the games promotive of sculpture, since they 
afforded the sculptor living models for his art. "Without the 
Olympic games," says Holm, "we should never have had Greek 
sculpture." Moreover, they promoted intercourse and trade ; for 
the festivals naturally became great centers of traffic and exchange 




68 THE HERITAGE OF THE HISTORIC GREEKS [§ 104 

during the progress of the games. They softened, too, the manners 
of the people, turning their thoughts from martial exploits and 
giving the states respite from war ; for during the season in which 
the religious games were held it was sacrilegious to engage in 
military expeditions. They tended also to keep alive common 
Hellenic feelings and sentiments. In all these ways, though they 
never drew the states into a common political union, they im- 
pressed a common character upon their social, intellectual, and 
religious life. 1 

104. The Greek Language. One of the most wonderful things 
which the Greeks brought out of their dim foretime was their 
language. At the beginning of the historic period it was already 
one of the richest and most refined languages ever spoken by 
human lips. Through what number of centuries it was taking 
form upon the lips of the forefathers of the historic Greeks, we 
can only vaguely imagine. It bears testimony to a long period 
of true Hellenic life lying behind the historic age in Hellas. 

105. The Homeric Poems. The rich and flexible language of 
the Greeks had already in prehistoric times been wrought into 
epic poems of incomparable beauty and perfection. These epics, 
transmitted from the Greek foretime and known as the "Homeric 
poems," consist of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Neither their exact 
date nor their authorship is known (sect. 198). That they were 
the prized possession of the Greeks at the beginning of the his- 
toric period is all that it is important for us to note here. They 
were a sort of Bible to the Greeks, and exercised an incalculable 
influence not only upon the religious but also upon the literary 
life of the entire Hellenic world. 

References. Curtius, E., vol. ii, p. i-m. Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), 
vol. ii, pp. 164-194; vol. iii, pp. 276-297. Holm, A., vol. i, chaps, i, xi, xix. 
Bury, J. B., History of Greece, pp. 65-73. Fowler, W. W., The City-State of 
the Greeks and Romans, chaps, i-iii. Diehl, C, Excursions in Greece, chap, vii 
(on the Grecian games). Seymour, T. D., Life in the Homeric Age. Gardiner, 
E. N., Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals, chap, ix (on the Olympic games). 

1 The Olympian games, after having been suspended since the fourth century of our 
era, were revived, with an international character, in 1896, at Athens. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE GROWTH OF SPARTA 

106. Situation of Sparta. Probable tradition tells of a pre- 
historic invasion of the Peloponnesus by Dorian tribes and the 
subjugation by them of the earlier population 1 of the peninsula. 
Sparta was one of the cities of the Peloponnesus which owed their 



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Fig. 33. Sparta, with the Ranges of the Taygetus 

origin or importance to this conquest. It was situated in the deep 
valley of the Eurotas, in Laconia, and took its name Sparta ("sown 
land") from the circumstance that it was built upon tillable 
ground, whereas the heart and center of most Greek cities con- 
sisted of a lofty rock (the citadel or acropolis). But Sparta needed 
no citadel. Her situation, surrounded as she was by almost im- 
passable mountain barriers, and far removed from the sea, was 
her sufficient defense. Indeed, the Spartans seem to have thought 
it unnecessary even to erect a wall round their city, which stood 
open on every side until late and degenerate times. 

1 Probably already Hellenized. 
69 



70 THE GROWTH OF SPARTA [§ 107 

107. Classes in the Spartan State. The population of Laconia 
was divided into three classes, — Spartans, Perioeci, and Helots. 
The Spartans proper were the descendants of the conquerors of 
the country, and were of course Dorian in race and language. 
They composed but a small fraction of the entire population. 

The Perioeci ("dwellers around") were the subjugated natives. 
They are said to have outnumbered the Spartans three to one. 
They were allowed to retain possession of their lands, but were 
forced to pay tribute-rent, and in times of war to follow the lead 
of their Spartan masters. 

The third and lowest class was composed of serfs, called Helots. 
They were the property of the state, and not of the individual 
Spartan lords, among whom they were distributed by lot. It is 
affirmed that when they grew too numerous for the safety of the 
state, their numbers were thinned by a deliberate massacre of the 
surplus population. 

108. The Spartan Constitution. Of the history of Sparta 
before the eighth century b.c. we have no certain knowledge. 
According to tradition, peace, prosperity, and rapid growth were 
secured through the adoption of a most remarkable political con- 
stitution framed by a great lawgiver named Lycurgus. This 
constitution provided for two joint kings, a Senate, a General 
Assembly, and a sort of executive board composed of five persons 
called Ephors. The double sovereignty worked admirably, one 
king being a check upon the other ; for five centuries there was 
no successful attempt on the part of a Spartan king to subvert 
the constitution. 

The Senate consisted of twenty-eight elders and the two kings. 
No one could become a senator until he had reached the age of 
sixty. The General Assembly was composed of all the citizens of 
Sparta over thirty years of age. By this body laws were made and 
questions of peace and war decided. In striking contrast to the 
custom at Athens, all matters were decided without general debate, 
only the magistrates and persons specially invited being allowed 
to address the assemblage. The Spartans were fighters, not 
talkers ; they hated windy discussion. 



§ 109] THE PUBLIC TABLES 71 

109. The Public Tables. In order to correct the extravagance 
with which the tables of the rich were often spread, Lycurgus is 
said to have ordered that all the citizens should eat at public and 
common tables. This was their custom, but Lycurgus could have 
had nothing to do with instituting it. It was part of their 
military life. 

A luxury-loving Athenian once visited Sparta, and, seeing the 
coarse fare of the citizens, is reported to have declared that 
now he understood the Spartan disregard of life in battle. "Any 
one," said he, "must naturally prefer death to life on such 
fare as this." 

110. Education of the Youth. Children at Sparta were re- 
garded as belonging to the state. Every male infant was brought 
before a Council of Elders, and if it did not seem likely to become 
a robust and useful citizen, was exposed in a mountain glen. At 
seven the education and training of the youth were committed to 
the charge of public officers, called boy trainers. The aim of 
the entire course was to make a nation of soldiers who should 
contemn toil and danger and prefer death to military dishonor. 

The mind was cultivated only as far as might contribute to the 
main object of the system. Reading and writing were not taught, 
and the art of rhetoric was despised. Only martial poems were 
recited. The Spartans had a profound contempt for the subtleties 
and literary acquirements of the Athenians. Spartan brevity was 
a proverb, whence our word laconic (from Laconia), meaning a 
concise and pithy mode of expression. 

But while the mind was neglected, the body was carefully 
trained. In running, leaping, wrestling, and hurling the spear the 
Spartans acquired the most surprising nimbleness and dexterity. 
At the Olympian games Spartan contestants more frequently than 
any others bore off the prizes of victory. 

But before all things else was the Spartan youth taught to bear 
pain unflinchingly. At times he was scourged just for the pur- 
pose of accustoming his body to pain. Frequently, it is said, 
boys died under the lash without revealing their suffering by 
look or moan. 



72 THE GROWTH OF SPARTA [§ 111 

That the laws and regulations of the Spartan constitution were 
admirably adapted to the end in view, — the rearing of a nation of 
agile and sturdy warriors,— -the long military supremacy of Sparta 
among the states of Greece abundantly attests. 

111. The Spartan Conquest of Messenia. The most impor- 
tant event in Spartan history between the age of Lycurgus and 
the commencement of the Persian Wars was the long contest with 
Messenia, known as the First and Second Messenian Wars (about 
743-723 and 645-631 B.C.). The outcome of the protracted 
struggle was the defeat of the Messenians and their reduction to 
the hard and bitter condition of the Helots of Laconia. Many 
of the nobles fled the country and found hospitality as exiles in 
other lands. Some of the fugitives conquered for themselves a 
place in Sicily and gave name and importance to the still existing 
city of Messana (Messina), on the Sicilian straits. 

Thus Sparta secured possession of Messenia. From the end of 
the Second Messenian War on to the decline of the Spartan power 
in the fourth century B.C., the Messenians were the serfs of the 
Spartans. All the southern part of the Peloponnesus was now 
Spartan territory. 

112. Sparta becomes Supreme in the Peloponnesus. After 
Sparta had secured possession of Messenia, her influence and power 
advanced steadily until her leadership was acknowledged by most of 
the states of the Peloponnesus. She now, as head of a Peloponne- 
sian league, began to be looked to even by the Greek cities beyond 
the peninsula as the natural leader and champion of the Greeks. 

Having now traced in brief outline the rise of Sparta to su- 
premacy in the Peloponnesus, we must turn aside to take a wider 
look over Hellas, in order to note an expansion movement of the 
Hellenic race which resulted in the establishment of Hellenes upon 
almost every shore of the then known world. 

References. Plutarch, Lycurgus. Curtius, E., vol. i, pp. 175-275. Grote, 
G. (ten-volume ed.), vol. ii, pp. 259-376. Abbott, E., vol. i, chaps, vi-viii. 
Holm, A., vol. i, chaps, xv-xvii. AliXroft and Masom, Early Grecian His- 
tory, chaps, viii, xi. Oman, C, Histoiy of Greece, chaps, vii, viii. Bury, J. B., 
History of Greece, chap. iii. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE AGE OF COLONIZATION AND OF TYRANNIES 
I. THE AGE OF COLONIZATION (ABOUT 750-600 b.c.) 

113. Causes of Greek Colonization. The latter half of the 
eighth and the seventh century b.c. constituted a period in Greek 
history marked by great activity in the establishment of colonies. 
One inciting cause of this outward movement at this time was the 
political unrest which had come to fill almost all the cities of 
Greece. Oligarchies and tyrannies had arisen, and the people 
oftentimes were oppressed. Thousands, driven from their homes, 
like the Puritans in the time of the Stuart tyranny in England, fled 
over the seas, and, under the direction of the Delphian Apollo, 
laid upon remote and widely separated shores the basis of "dis- 
persed Hellas." The growth in population, the expansion of the 
trade of the homeland cities, and the. Greek love of adventure also 
contributed to swell the number of emigrants. 

114. Relation of a Greek Colony to its Mother City. The 
history of the Greek colonies would be unintelligible without an 
understanding of the relation in which a Greek colony stood to 
the city sending out the emigrants. There was a wide difference 
between Greek colonization and Roman. The Roman colony was 
subject to the authority of the mother city. The Greek colony, 
on the other hand, was, in almost all cases, wholly independent 
of its parent city. The Greek mind could not entertain the idea 
of one city as rightly ruling over another, even though that other 
were her own daughter colony. 

But while there were no political bonds uniting the mother city 
and her daughter colonies, still the colonies were attached to their 
parent country by ties of kinship, of culture, and of filial piety. 
The sacred fire on the altar of the new home was kindled from 

73 



74 AGE OF COLONIZATION AND TYRANNIES [§ 115 

embers piously borne by the emigrants from the public hearth of 
the mother city, and testified constantly that the citizens of the 
two cities were members of the same though divided family. 

The feeling the colonists had for their mother city is shown by 
the names which they often gave to the prominent objects in and 
about their new home. Just as the affectionate memory of the 
homes from which they had gone out prompted the New England 
colonists to reproduce in the new land the names of places and 
objects dear to them in the old, so did the cherished remembrance 
of the land they had left lead the Greek emigrants to give to the 
streets and temples and fountains and hills of their new city the 
familiar and endeared names of the old home. The new city was 
simply "a home away from home." 

115. The Chalcidian Colonies (about 750-650 B.C.). An early 
colonizing ground of the Greeks was the Macedonian coast. Here 
a triple promontory juts far out into the ^Egean. On this 
broken shore Chalcis of Euboea, with the help of emigrants 
from other cities, founded so many colonies — thirty-two owned 
her as their mother city — that the land became known as 
Chalcidice. 

One of the chief attractions of this shore to the Greek colonists 
was the rich copper, silver, and gold deposits. The hills, too, were 
clothed with heavy forests which furnished excellent timber for 
shipbuilding, and this was an important item of export, since in 
many parts of Greece timber was scarce. 

116. Colonies on the Hellespont and the Bosphorus. A 
second region full of attractions for the colonists of the enter- 
prising commercial cities of the mother country was that embrac- 
ing the Hellespont and the Bosphorus. These water channels, 
forming as they do the gateway to the northern world, early drew 
the attention of the Greek traders. Here was founded, among 
other cities, Byzantium (658 B.C.). The city was built, under the 
direction of the Delphian oracle, 1 on one of the most magnificent 

1 The managers of the oracle, doubtless through the visitors to the shrine, kept them- 
selves informed respecting the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, and thus were 
able to give good advice to those contemplating the founding of a new settlement. 



§ 117] COLONIES IN THE EUXINE REGION 75 

sites for a great emporium that the ancient world afforded. It 
was destined to a long and checkered history. 

117. Colonies in the Euxine Region. The tale of the Argo- 
nauts (sect. 93) shows that in prehistoric times the Greeks prob- 
ably carried on trade with the shores of the Euxine. The chief 
products of the region were fish, grain, and cattle, besides timber, 
gold, copper, and iron. Still another object of commerce was 
slaves. This region was a sort of slave hunters' land, — the Africa 
of Hellas. It supplied to a great degree the slave markets of 




Fig. 34. Ruined Temples at PjESTUM 

Paestum was the Greek Posidonia, in Lucania. These ruins form the most noteworthy 
existing monuments of the early Greek occupation of southern Italy 

the Hellenic world. In the modern Caucasian slave trade of the 
Mohammedan sultans we may recognize a survival of a commerce 
which was active twenty-five hundred years ago. 

Eighty colonies in the Euxine are said to have owned Miletus 
as their mother city. The coasts of the sea became so crowded 
with Greek cities, and the whole region was so astir with Greek 
enterprise, that the Greeks came to regard this quarter of the 
world, once looked upon as so remote and inhospitable, as almost 
a part of the home country. 

118. Colonies in Southern Italy. At the same time that the 
tide of Hellenic migration was flowing towards the north it was 
also flowing towards the west. Southern Italy became so thickly 
set with Greek cities as to become known as Magna Grcecia, 
" Great Greece." Here were founded during the latter part of the 
eighth century b.c. the important city of Taras, the Tarentum 



76 AGE OF COLONIZATION AND TYRANNIES [§ 119 

of the Romans, and the ^Eolian city of Sybaris, noted for the 
voluptuous life of its citizens, whence our term sybarite, mean- 
ing a person given to sensual pleasures. 

The chief importance of the cities of Magna Graecia for civili- 
zation springs from their relations to Rome. Through them, with- 
out doubt, the early Romans received many primary elements of 
culture, deriving thence probably their knowledge of letters as 
well as of Greek constitutional law (sect. 227). 

119. Colonies in Sicily and in Southern Gaul. The island of 
Sicily is in easy sight from the Italian shore. About the same 
time that the southern part of the peninsula was being filled with 
Greek colonists, this island was also receiving swarms of immi- 
grants. Here among other colonies was planted by the Dorian 
Corinth the city of Syracuse (734 B.C.), which, before Rome had 
become great, waged war on equal terms with Carthage. 

Sicily was the most disorderly and tumultuous part of Hellas. 
It was the "wild West" of the Hellenic world. It was the land 
of romance and adventure, and seems to have drawn to itself the 
most untamed and venturesome spirits among the Greeks. 

The coast of Gaul where the Rhone meets the sea was another 
region occupied by Greek colonists. A chief attraction here was 
the amber and tin brought overland from the Baltic and from 
Britain. Here were established several colonies, chief among 
which was Massilia (about 600 B.C.), the modern Marseilles. 

120. Colonies in North Africa and Egypt. In the Nile Delta 
the Greeks early established the important station of Naucratis, 
which was the gateway through which Hellenic influences passed 
into Egypt and Egyptian influences passed out into Greece. Some- 
time in the seventh century b.c, in obedience to the commands 
of the Delphian Apollo, they founded on the African coast the 
important colony of Cyrene, which became the metropolis of a 
large district known as Cyrenaica. 

121. Place of the Colonies in Grecian History. The history of 
dispersed Hellas is closely interwoven with that of continental 
Hellas. In truth, a large part of the history of Greece would be 
unintelligible should we lose sight of Greater Greece, just as a 



Si 122] CHARACTER OF THE GREEK TYRANNIES 77 

large part of the history of Europe since the seventeenth century 
cannot be understood without a knowledge of Greater Europe. 
In colonial interests, rivalries, and jealousies we shall find the 
inciting cause of many of the contentions and wars between the 
cities of the homeland. 

II. THE TYRANNIES (ABOUT 650-500 b.c.) 

122. The Character and Origin of the Greek Tyrannies. 
The latter part of the period of Greek colonization corresponds 
very nearly to what has been called the " Earlier Age of the 
Tyrants," 1 of whom a word must here be said. 

In the Heroic Age the preferred form of government among the 
Greeks was a patriarchal monarchy. The Iliad says, "The rule 
of many is not a good thing : let us have one ruler only, — one 
king, — him to whom Zeus has given the scepter." But by the dawn 
of the historic period the patriarchal monarchies of the early age 
had given place, in almost all the Grecian cities, to oligarchies or 
aristocracies. A little later, just as the Homeric monarchies had 
been superseded by oligarchies, so were these in many of the Greek 
cities superseded by tyrannies. 

By the term tyrannos ("tyrant") the Greeks did not mean one 
who ruled harshly, but simply one who held the supreme authority 
in the state illegally. Some of the Greek tyrants were beneficent 
rulers, though too often they were all that the name implies among 
us. There was hardly an important Greek city which did not at 
one time or another fall into the hands of a tyrant. 

Generally the person setting up a tyranny was some ambitious 
member of the aristocracy, who had held himself out as the cham- 
pion of the people, and who, aided by them, had succeeded in 
overturning the hated government of the oligarchs. 

123. The Greek Feeling toward the Tyrants. The tyrants sat 
upon unstable thrones. The Greeks, always lovers of freedom, had 

1 For a hundred j'ears after the expulsion of the tyrants from Athens (sect. 131) there 
were no tyrants in Greece proper, and for a great part of this time there were no tyrants 
anywhere in the Greek world. In the fourth century B. c. tyrants arose again, particularly 
in Sicily. This distribution in time of these rulers leads some historians to divide the 
tyrannies into an earlier and a later age. 



78 AGE OF COLONIZATION AND TYRANNIES [§ 124 

an inextinguishable hatred of these despots. Furthermore, the 
atrocious crimes of some of them caused the whole class to be 
regarded with the utmost abhorrence, — so much so that tyranni- 
cide, that is, the killing of a tyrant, came to be regarded by the 
Greeks as a supremely patriotic and virtuous act. Consequently 
the tyrannies were, as a rule, short-lived. They were usually vio- 
lently overthrown, and the old oligarchies reestablished, or democ- 
racies set up in their place. Speaking broadly, the Dorian cities 
preferred aristocratic and the Ionian cities democratic government. 

124. Influence of the Tyrants upon Greek Civilization. The 
rule of the tyrants conferred some undoubted benefits upon Greek 
civilization. Through the connections which the despots formed 
with foreign kings the isolation of the Greek cities was broken. 
These connections between the courts of the tyrants and those of 
the rulers of oriental countries opened the cities of the Hellenic 
world to the influences of those lands of culture, widened their 
horizon, and enlarged the sphere of their commercial enterprise. 

Again, the tyrants were apt to be liberal patrons of art and lit- 
erature. Poetry and music flourished in the congenial atmosphere 
of their luxurious courts, while architecture was given a great 
impulse by the public buildings and works which many of them 
undertook with a view of embellishing their capitals, or of winning 
the favor of the poorer classes by creating opportunities for their 
employment. Thus it happened that the Age of the Tyrants was 
a period marked by an unusually rapid advance of many of the 
Greek cities in their artistic, intellectual, and industrial life. 

References. For the colonies : Curtius, E., vol. i, pp. 432-500. Grote, G. 
(ten-volume ed.), vol. iii, pp. 163-220, 247-275. Abbott, E., vol. i, pp. 333- 
365. Holm, A., vol. i, chap. xxi. Oman, C, History of Greece, chap. ix. Bury, 
J. B., History of Greece, chap. ii. Keller, A. G., Colonization, pp. 39-50. 

For the tyrannies : Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), vol. ii, pp. 378-421. Holm, 
A., vol. i, chap. xxii. Fowler, W. W., The City-State of the Greeks and 
Romans, chaps, iv, v. Mahaffy, J. P., Problems in Greek History, chap, iv, 
and Survey of Greek Civilization, pp. 99-101. Cox, G. W., Lives of Greek 
Statesmen, " Polykrates." Herodotus, iv, 150-153, 156-159 (on the Delphic 
oracle and Greek colonization). 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE HISTORY OF ATHENS UP TO THE PERSIAN WARS 

125. The Beginnings of Athens. Four or five miles from the 
sea, a little hill, about one thousand feet in length and half as many 
in width, rises about one hundred and fifty feet above the level 
of the plains of Attica. The security afforded by this eminence 
doubtless led to its selection as a stronghold by the early settlers 
of the Attic plains. Here a few buildings, perched upon the sum- 
mit of the rock, and surrounded by a palisade, constituted the 
beginnings of the capital whose fame has spread over all the world. 

126. The Archons, the Council of the Areopagus, and the 
General Assembly. In prehistoric times Athens, like all other 
Greek cities, was ruled by kings. The name of Theseus is the 
most noted of the regal line. By the opening of the seventh cen- 
tury b.c. a board of nine persons, called Archons, of whom the 
king in a subordinate position was one, stood at the head of the 
Athenian state. The ancient monarchy had become an oligarchy. 

Besides the board of Archons there was in the Athenian state 
at this time a very important tribunal, called the Council of the 
Areopagus. 1 This council was composed exclusively of ex-Archons, 
and consequently was a purely aristocratic body. Its members 
held office for life. The duty of the council was to see that the 
laws were duly observed, and to judge and punish transgressors. 
There was no appeal from its decisions. This council was, at the 
opening of the historic period, the real power in the Athenian state. 

In addition to the board of Archons and the Council of the 
Areopagus, there is some evidence of the existence of a general 
assembly (EKKXrjo-ia, Ecclesia), in which all those who served in 
the heavy-armed forces of the state had a place. 

1 So called from the name of the hill "Apetos -rrdyos, " Hill of Ares,'' which was the 
assembling place of the council. See Acts xvii, 22-31. 

79 



8o 



THE HISTORY OF ATHENS 



[§127 



127. Classes in the Athenian State. The leading class in the 
Athenian state were the nobles. These men were wealthy land- 
owners, a large part of the best soil of Attica, it is said, being 
held by them. 

Beneath the nobles we find the body of the nominally free 
inhabitants. Many of them were tenants living in a state little 
removed from serfdom upon the estates of the wealthy nobles. 

They paid rent in 
kind to their land- 
lords, and in case 
of failure to pay, 
they, together with 
their wives and 
children, might be 
seized by the pro- 
prietor and sold 
as slaves. Others 
owned their little 
farms, but at the 
time of which we 
are speaking had 
fallen deeply in 
debt. Thus because of their wretched economic condition, as 
well as because of their exclusion from the government, these 
classes among the common people were filled with bitterness 
toward the nobles and were ready for revolution. 

128. Draco's Code (621 B.C.). It was probably to quiet the 
people and to save the state from anarchy that the nobles at this 
time appointed a person named Draco, one of their own order, 
to write out and publish the laws. 1 

In carrying into effect his commission, Draco probably did little 
more than reduce existing rules and customs to a definite and 

1 Up to this time the rules and customs of the city had been unwritten, and hence 
the magistrates, who belonged to the order of the nobility and alone administered the 
laws, could and often did interpret them unfairly in favor of their own class. The 
people demanded that the customs should be put in writing and published, so that 
everyone might know just what they were (compare sect. 247). 




Fig. 36. The Be-ma, ok Orator's Stand, on 
the Pnyx Hill, Athens. (From a photograph) 



§ 129] THE REFORMS OF SOLON 81 

written form. The laws as published were very severe. Death 
was the penalty for the smallest theft. This severity of the 
Draconian laws is what caused a later Athenian orator to say 
that they were written "not in ink, but in blood." 

There was one real and great defect in Draco's work. He did 
not accomplish anything in the way of economic reform, and 
thus did nothing to give relief to those who were struggling with 
poverty and were the victims of the harsh laws of debt. 

129. The Reforms of Solon (594 B.C.). The condition of the 
poorer classes grew more and more unendurable. Some radical 
measures of relief became necessary. Once more, as in the time 
of Draco, the Athenians resolved to place their laws in the hands 
of a single man, to be remodeled as he might deem best. Solon, 
a man held in high esteem by all classes, was selected to discharge 
this responsible duty. Solon turned his attention first to relieving 
the misery of the debtor class. He canceled all debts of every 
kind, both public and private. 1 Moreover, that there might never 
again be seen in Attica the spectacle of men dragged off in chains 
to be sold as slaves in payment of their debts, Solon forbade the 
practice of securing debts on the body of the debtor. No Athenian 
was ever after this sold for debt. 

Such was the most important of the economic reforms of Solon. 
His constitutional reforms were equally wise and beneficent. The 
Ecclesia, or popular assembly, was at this time composed of all 
those persons who were able to provide themselves with arms and 
armor ; that is to say, of all the members of the three highest of 
the four propertied classes into which the people were divided. 
The fourth and poorest class, the Thetes, were excluded. Solon 
opened the Ecclesia to them, giving them the right to vote but 
not to hold office. He also made other changes in the constitu- 
tion whereby the magistrates became responsible to the people, 
who henceforth not only elected them but judged them in case 
they did wrong. 

1 This is Aristotle's account of the matter {Athenian Constitution, ch.6). According 
to other accounts, Solon annulled only debts secured on land or on the person of the 
debtor. Solon also reformed the monetary system. 



82 



THE HISTORY OF ATHENS 



[§130 



130. The Tyrant Pisistratus (560-527 B.C.). The reforms of 
Solon naturally worked hardship to many persons. These became 
bitter enemies of the new order of things. Moreover, the reformed 
constitution failed to work smoothly. Taking advantage of the 
situation, Pisistratus, an ambitious noble, with a small force 
seized the Acropolis and made himself master of Athens. Though 

twice expelled from the city, he as 
often returned and reinstated him- 
self in the tyranny. 

Pisistratus may be taken as a 
type of the better class of Greek 
tyrants. He gave Athens a mild 
rule, and under him the city en- 
joyed a period of great prosperity. 
He established religious festivals, 
adorned the city with splendid 
buildings, and is said also to have 
added to the embellishments of the 
Lyceum, a sort of public park just 
outside the city walls, which in 
after times became one of the fa- 
vorite resorts of the poets, phi- 
losophers, and pleasure seekers of 
the capital. 

131. Expulsion of the Tyrants 
from Athens (510 B.C.). The two 
sons of Pisistratus, Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded to his 
power. At first they emulated the example of their father, and 
Athens flourished under their rule. But at length an unfortunate 
event gave an entirely different tone to the government. Hip- 
parchus having insulted a young noble named Harmodius, this 
man, in connection with his friend Aristogiton and some others, 
planned to assassinate both the tyrants. Hipparchus was slain, 
but the plans of the conspirators miscarried as to Hippias. Har- 
modius was struck down by the guards of the tyrants, and 
Aristogiton was seized and put to death. 




Fig. 37. The Athenian 

Tyrannicides, Harmodius 

and Aristogiton 

Marble statues in the Naples Mu- 
seum, recognized as ancient copies of 
the bronze statues set up at Athens in 
commemoration of the assassination 
of the tyrant Hipparchus 



§ 132] THE REFORMS OF CLISTHENES 83 

We have already spoken of how tyrannicide appeared to the 
Greek mind as an eminently praiseworthy act (sect. 123). This 
is well illustrated by the grateful and venerated remembrance in 
which Harmodius and Aristogiton were ever held by the Athenians. 
Statues were raised in their honor (Fig. 37), and the story of their 
deed was rehearsed to the youth as an incentive to patriotism and 
self-devotion. 

The plot had a most unhappy effect upon the disposition of 
Hippias. It caused him to become suspicious and severe. His 
rule now became a tyranny indeed. He was finally driven out 
of the city. 

132. The Reforms of Clisthenes (508 B.C.). Straightway upon 
the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias, old feuds between factions of 
the nobles broke out afresh. A prominent noble named Clisthenes, 
head of one of the factions, feeling that he was not receiving in the 
way of coveted office the recognition from his own order which his 
merits deserved, allied himself with the common people as their 
champion. He thus got control of affairs in the state. With power 
once in his hands he used it to remold the constitution into a form 
still more democratic than that given it by Solon. 

One of the most important of his measures was that by which 
he conferred citizenship upon a great body of poor Athenians who 
had hitherto been excluded from the rights of the city, and also 
upon many resident aliens and freedmen. This measure, which 
was effected through a regrouping of the people, made such radical 
changes in the constitution in the interests of the masses that 
Clisthenes has been called "the second founder of the Athenian 
democracy." 

133. Ostracism. Among the other innovations or institutions 
generally ascribed to Clisthenes was the celebrated one known as 
ostracism. By means of this process any person who had excited 
the suspicions or displeasure of the people could by popular vote, 
without trial, be banished from Athens for a period of ten years. 
The name of the person whose banishment was sought was written 
on a shell or a piece of pottery, in Greek ostrakon (oarpaKov), 
whence the term ostracism. 



84 THE HISTORY OF ATHENS [§ 134 

The design of this institution was to prevent the recurrence of 
such a usurpation as that of Pisistratus. It was first used to get 
rid of some of the old friends of the ex-tyrant Hippias, whom the 
Athenians distrusted. Later the vote came to be employed, as a 
rule, simply to settle disputes between rival leaders of political 
parties. Thus the vote merely expressed political preference, the 
ostracized person being simply the defeated candidate for popular 
favor. No stigma or disgrace attached to him. 

The power that the device of ostracism lodged in the hands of 
the people was not always wisely used, and some of the ablest and 
most patriotic statesmen of Athens were sent into exile through 
the influence of some demagogue who for the moment had caught 
the popular ear. 1 

134. Sparta Opposes the Athenian Democracy. The aristo- 
cratic party at Athens was naturally bitterly opposed to all these 
democratic innovations. The Spartans also viewed with disquiet 
and jealousy this rapid growth of the Athenian democracy, and, 
inviting Hippias over from Asia, tried to overthrow the new gov- 
ernment and restore him to power. But they did not succeed in 
their purpose, because their allies refused to aid them in such an 
undertaking, and Hippias went away to Persia to seek aid of 
King Darius. 

References. Plutarch, Solon. Curtius, E., vol. i, pp. 316-431. Grote, 
G. (ten-volume ed.), vol. ii, pp. 422-529 ; vol. iii, pp. 324-398. Abbott, E., 
vol. i, chaps, ix, xiii, xv. The accounts of the Athenian constitution in Curtius, 
Grote, and Abbott, which were written before the discovery of the Aristotelian 
treatise {Athenian Constitution), must be read in the light of the new evidence. 
Holm, A., vol. i, chaps, xxvi-xxviii. Hopkinson, L. W., Greek Leaders, pp. 1- 
17, " Solon." Cox, G. W., Lives of Greek Statesmen, " Solon," " Peisistratus," 
and " Kleisthenes." Bury, J. B., History of Greece, chap, iv, sect, iv; chap, v, 
sect. ii. Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chap, ii (on the environ-' 
ment of Athens). Young readers will enjoy Harrison, J. A., Story of Greece, 
chaps, xvi-xviii. 

1 The institution was short-lived. It was resorted to for the last time during the 
Peloponnesian War (418 B.C.). The people then, in a freak, ostracized a man, Hyper- 
bolus by name, whom all admitted to be the meanest man in Athens. This, it is said, 
was regarded as such a degradation of the institution, as well as such an honor to the 
mean man, that never thereafter did the Athenians degrade a good man or honor a bad 
one by a resort to the measure. 




CHAPTER XV 

THE PERSIAN WARS 
(500-479 B.C.) 

135. The Real Cause of the Persian Wars. In a foregoing 
chapter we showed how the expansive energies of the Greek race, 
chiefly during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., covered the 
islands and shores of the Mediterranean world with a free, liberty- 
loving, progressive, and ever-growing population of Hellenic speech 
and culture. The first half of the sixth century had barely passed 
before this promising expansion movement was first checked and 
then seriously cramped by the rise of a great despotic Asiatic 
power, the Persian Empire. By the opening of the fifth century 
B.C. all the Asian Greek cities had been enslaved, and the JEgean 
had become practically a Persian lake. These encroachments 
threatened to leave the Greeks no standing room on the earth. 
Here must be sought the real cause of the memorable wars between 
Hellas and Persia. 

136. The Ionian Revolt (500 B.C.). The Greek cities reduced 
to servitude by Persia could neither long nor quietly endure the 
loss of their independence. In the year 500 B.C. Ionia became 
the center of a formidable rebellion against the Great King. 1 The 
Athenians sent twenty ships to the aid of their Ionian kinsmen. 
Sardis was taken and burned. Defeated in battle, the Athenians 
forsook their Ionian confederates and sailed back to Athens. 

This unfortunate expedition was destined to have tremendous 
consequences. The Athenians had not only burned Sardis, but 
"had set the whole world on fire." When the news of the affair 

1 Darius I. See sect. 67. 
85 



86 THE PERSIAN WARS [§ 137 

reached Darius at Susa, he asked, Herodotus tells us, who the 
Athenians were and, being told, took his bow and shot an arrow 
upward into the sky, saying as he let fly the shaft, " Grant, O Zeus, 
that I may have vengeance on the Athenians." After this speech 
he bade one of his servants every day repeat to him three times 
these words : " Master, remember the Athenians." 

137. The First Expedition of Darius against Greece (492 B.C.). 
The Ionian revolt having been crushed and punished, Darius deter- 
mined to chastise the European Greeks, and particularly the Athe- 
nians, for giving aid to his rebellious subjects. A large land and 
naval armament was fitted out for the conquest of Greece. The 
land forces suffered severe losses at the hands of the barbarians of 
Thrace, and the fleet was wrecked by a violent storm off Mount 
Athos, three hundred ships being lost. 

138. The Second Expedition of Darius; the Battle of 
Marathon (490 B.C.). Undismayed by this disaster, Darius issued 
orders for the raising and equipping of another and stronger arma- 
ment. Soon a large force had been mustered for a second attempt 
upon Greece. A fleet of six hundred ships bore the army from the 
coasts of Asia Minor over the iEgean toward the Grecian shores. 
After receiving the submission of the most important of the 
Cyclades, the Persians landed at Marathon, barely one day's 
journey from Athens. Instead of awaiting behind their walls the 
coming of the Persians, the Athenians decided to offer them battle 
in the open field at Marathon. Accordingly they marched out 
ten thousand strong. 

Meanwhile a fleet runner, Phidippides by name, was hurrying 
with a message to Sparta for aid. In. just thirty-six hours Phidip- 
pides was in Sparta, which is one hundred and thirty-five or forty 
miles from Athens. Now it so happened that it lacked a few days 
of the full of the moon, during which interval the Spartans, owing 
to an old superstition, dared not set out upon a military expedition. 
They promised aid, but moved only in time to reach Athens after 
all was over. 

The battle was begun by the Athenians under their general 
Miltiades. The issue was for a time doubtful. Then the tide 



§ 139 J RESULTS OF THE BATTLE OF MARATHON 87 

turned in favor of the Greeks, and the Persians were driven to 
their ships with great slaughter. After threatening Athens with 
attack, but finding the Athenians ready to receive them, the 
Persians sailed away for the Ionian shore. 

139. Results of the Battle of Marathon. The battle of Mara- 
thon is justly reckoned as one of the "decisive battles of the 
world." It marks a turning point in the history of humanity. 
By the victory Hellenic civilization was saved to mature its fruit, 
not for Hellas alone but for the world. We cannot conceive what 
European civilization would be like without those rich and vitaliz- 
ing elements contributed to it by the Greek, and especially by the 
Athenian, genius. But the germs of all these might have been 
smothered and destroyed had the barbarians won the day at 
Marathon. Ancient Greece, as a satrapy of the Persian Empire, 
Would certainly have become what modern Greece became as a 
province of the empire of the Ottoman Turks. 

The great achievement further inspired the Athenians with 
self-confidence. They did great things thereafter because they 
believed themselves able to do them. From the battle of Marathon 
dates the beginning of the great days of imperial Athens. 

140. Themistocles and his Naval Policy; Aristides Opposes 
him and is Ostracized (483 B.C.). Many among the Athenians 
were inclined to believe that the battle of Marathon had freed 
Athens forever from the danger of a Persian invasion. But there 
was at least one among them who was clear-sighted enough to 
see that that battle was only the beginning of a great struggle. 
This was Themistocles, a sagacious, farsighted, versatile states- 
man, who, in his own words, though "he knew nothing of music 
and song, did know how of a small city to make a great one." The 
policy he urged upon the Athenians was to strengthen their navy 
as the only reliable defense of Hellas against subjection to the 
Persian power. 

Themistocles was opposed in this policy by Aristides, called the 
Just, a man of the most scrupulous integrity, who feared that 
Athens would make a serious mistake if she converted her land 
force into a naval armament. The contention grew so sharp 



88 THE PERSIAN WARS [§ 141 

between the two that ostracism was called into use to decide the 
matter. Six thousand votes were cast against Aristides, and he 
was sent into exile. 

It is related that while the vote that ostracized him was being 
taken in the popular assembly, an illiterate peasant, who was a 
stranger to Aristides, asked him to write the name of Aristides 
upon his tablet. As he placed the name desired upon the shell, 
the statesman asked the man what wrong Aristides had ever done 
him. "None," responded the voter; "I do not even know him; 
but I am tired of hearing him called the Just." 

After the banishment of Aristides, Themistocles was free to 
carry out his naval policy without serious opposition, and soon 
Athens had the largest fleet of any Greek city, with a splendid 
harbor at Piraeus. 

141. The Invasion of Greece by Xerxes; the Battle of 
Thermopylae (480 B.C.). As soon as news of the disaster at Mara- 
thon reached Darius he began preparations to avenge this second 
defeat. In the midst of these plans for revenge death cut short his 
reign. His son Xerxes succeeded him, and, after some delay, 
pushed forward with energy the preparations already begun. To 
facilitate the march of his armies, Xerxes caused to be constructed 
a double bridge of boats across the Hellespont. This work was 
in the hands of Egyptian and Phoenician artisans. 

With the first indications of the opening spring of 480 B.C., 
just ten years after the defeat at Marathon, a vast Persian army 
was concentrating from all points upon the Hellespont. The pas- 
sage of the strait, as pictured in the inimitable narration of 
Herodotus, is one of the most dramatic of all the spectacles af- 
forded by history. Herodotus affirms that for seven days and 
seven nights the bridges groaned beneath the living tide that Asia 
was pouring into Europe. 1 

Leading from northern into central Greece is a narrow pass, 
pressed on one side by the sea and on the other by rugged 

1 According to Herodotus, the land and naval forces of Xerxes amounted to 
2,317,000 men, besides about 2,000,000 slaves and attendants. It is certain that these 
figures are a great exaggeration, and that the actual number of the Persian army could 
not have exceeded 600,000 men aside from attendants and camp followers. 



§ 141] THE BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE 89 

mountain ridges. At the foot of the cliffs break forth several hot 
springs, whence the name of the pass, Thermopylae, or Hot Gates. 
Here the Greeks had decided to make their first stand against the 
invaders. Leonidas, king of Sparta, with three hundred Spartan 
soldiers and about six thousand allies from different states, held 
the pass. 

The Spartans could be driven from their advantageous position 
only by an attack in front, as the Grecian fleet prevented Xerxes 
from landing a force in their rear. Before attacking them, Xerxes 
summoned them to give up their arms. The answer of Leonidas 
was, "Come and take them." For two days the Persians tried 
in vain to storm the pass. Even the Ten Thousand Immortals, 1 
the famous bodyguard of the Great King, were hurled back from 
the Spartan front like waves from a cliff. 

But an act of treachery on the part of a native Greek, Ephialtes 
by name, "the Judas of Greece," rendered unavailing all the brav- 
ery of the keepers of the pass. This ■ man, hoping for a large 
reward, revealed to Xerxes a bypath leading over the mountain to 
the rear of the Greeks. The startling intelligence was brought to 
Leonidas that the Persians were descending the mountain path in 
his rear. Realizing that the pass could no longer be held, the most 
of the allies now withdrew from the place while opportunity still 
remained ; but for Leonidas and his Spartan companions there 
could be no thought of retreat. Death in the pass, the defense 
of which had been intrusted to them, was all that Spartan honor 
and Spartan law now left them. The next day, surrounded by the 
Persian host, they fought with desperate valor ; but, overwhelmed 
by mere numbers, they were slain to the last man. 

The fight at Thermopylae echoed through all the after centuries 
of Grecian history. The Greeks felt that all Hellas had gained 
great glory on that day when Leonidas and his companions fell, 
and they gave them a chief place among their national heroes. 
Memorial pillars marked for coming generations the sacred spot, 
while praising inscriptions and epitaphs told in brief phrases the 

1 This body of picked soldiers was so called because its number was always kept up 
to ten thousand. 



90 THE PERSIAN WARS [§ 142 

story of the battle. Among these was an inscription which, 
commemorating at once Spartan law and Spartan valor, read, 
"Stranger, go tell the Lacedaemonians that we lie here in obedience 
to their commands ! " 

142. The Athenians abandon their City and betake them- 
selves to their Ships. Athens now lay open to the invaders. 
Counsels were divided. The Delphian oracle had obscurely de- 
clared, "When everything else in the land of Cecrops shall be 
taken, Zeus grants to Athena that the wooden walls alone shall 
remain unconquered, to defend you and your children." The 
oracle was believed to be, as was declared, "firm as adamant." 
But there were various opinions as to what was meant by the 
" wooden walls." Some thought the Pythian priestess directed the 
Athenians to seek refuge in the forests on the mountains ; others, 
that the oracle meant they should defend the Acropolis, which in 
early times had been surrounded with a palisade ; but Themistocles 
(who it is thought may have himself prompted the oracle) con- 
tended that the ships were plainly indicated. 

The last interpretation was acted upon. All the soldiers of 
Attica were crowded upon the vessels of the fleet at Salamis. The 
aged men, with the women and children, were carried out of the 
country to different places of safety. All the towns of Attica, with 
the capital, were thus abandoned to the conquerors. A few days 
later the Persians entered the deserted plain, and burned the 
empty towns. The revered temples of the citadel of Athens were 
plundered and given to the flames. Sardis was avenged. 

143. The Naval Battle of Salamis (480 B.C.). Just off the coast 
of Attica lies the island of Salamis. Here lay the Greek fleet, 
awaiting the Persians. Xerxes, deceived by Themistocles respect- 
ing the state of things among the Greek allies, ordered an im- 
mediate attack. From a lofty throne upon the shore he himself 
overlooked the scene and watched the result. The Persian fleet 
was broken to pieces and two hundred of the ships destroyed. 

The blow was decisive. Xerxes, fearing that treachery might 
destroy the Hellespontine bridges, instantly dispatched a hundred 
ships to protect them ; and then, leaving Mardonius with a large 



§ 144] MEMORIALS AND TROPHIES OF THE WAR 91 

force to retrieve the disaster of Salamis, the monarch with a strong 
escort made a hasty retreat into Asia. The following year, in a 
memorable battle known as the battle of Plataea, Mardonius was 
slain and his army virtually annihilated. Soon all European 
Greece, together with the Hellespont and the ^Egean islands, 
was, in the phrase of Herodotus, "restored to Grecian freedom." 

144. Memorials and Trophies of the War. The glorious issue 
of the war caused an outburst of joy and exultation throughout 
Greece. Poets, artists, and orators vied with one another in com- 
memorating the deeds of the heroes whose valor had averted the 
impending peril. The dramatist ^Eschylus, who had fought at 
Marathon and perhaps at Salamis and Plataea, erected an eternal 
monument in literature in his Persians, which, eight years after 
the battle, was presented at Athens before twenty thousand specta- 
tors, many of whom had had part in the fight ; and the great artist 
Polygnotus painted on the walls of a public porch at Athens the 
battle of Marathon. In truth, the great literature and art of the 
golden age of Athens were an imperishable memorial of the war. 

Nor did the pious Greeks think that the marvelous deliverance 
had been effected without the intervention of the gods in their 
behalf. To the temple at Delphi was gratefully consecrated a 
tenth of the immense spoils in gold and silver from the field of 
Plataea ; and upon the Acropolis at Athens was erected a colossal 
statue of Athena, made from the brazen arms gathered from the 
field at Marathon, while within the sanctuary of the goddess were 
placed the broken cables of the Hellespontine bridges, at once a 
proud trophy of victory and a signal illustration of the divine 
punishment that had befallen the impious attempt of the bar- 
barians to lay a yoke upon the sacred waters of the Hellespont. 

References. Plutarch, Themistocles and Aristides. .Eschylus, The 
Persians (a historical drama which celebrates the victory of Salamis). 
Curtius, E., vol. ii, pp. 135-352. Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), vol. iii, pp. 399- 
521 ; vol. iv, pp. 1-294. Holm, A., vol. i, chaps, xxiii, xxiv ; vol. ii, chaps, i-vi. 
Abbott, E., vol. ii, chaps, i-v. Cox, G. W., The Greeks and the Persians. 
Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of the World, chap, i, " The Battle of Mara- 
thon." IIopkinson, L. W., Greek Leaders, pp. 19-36, "Themistocles." CHURCH, 
A. J., Pictures from Greek Life and Story, chaps, iii-viii (juvenile). 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 

145. The Formation of the Confederacy of Delos (477 B.C.). 
Soon after the expulsion of the Persians from Greece the Ionian 
states, in order that they might be able to carry on more effectively 
the work to which they had set their hands, namely, the liberating 
of the Greek cities yet in the power of the Persians, formed a 
league known as the Confederacy of Delos. Sparta and her 
Peloponnesian allies were excluded from the league on account of 
the treachery of the Spartan Pausanias, who had been in command 
of the allied fleet. The league was a free association of independent 
and equal states, about two hundred and sixty in number. Athens 
was to be the head of the confederacy. Matters of common con- 
cern were to be in the hands of a congress convened yearly in the 
sacred island of Delos and composed of delegates from all the cities. 

At Delos, also, in the temple of Apollo, was to be kept the 
common treasure chest, to which each state was to make contri- 
bution according to its ability. What proportion of the ships and 
money should be contributed by the several states for carrying 
out the purposes of the union was left at first entirely to the 
decision of Aristides, such was the confidence all possessed in his 
fairness and incorruptible integrity ; and so long as he retained 
control of the matter, none of the allies ever had cause for 
complaint. 

The formation of this Delian League constitutes a prominent 
landmark in Grecian history. It meant not simply the transfer 
from Sparta to Athens of leadership in the maritime affairs of 
Hellas. It meant that all the earlier promises of Panhellenic union 
had come to naught. It meant, since the Peloponnesian Con- 
federacy still continued to exist, that henceforth Hellas was to be 
a house divided against itself. 

92 



§ 146] DELIAN LEAGUE BECOMES AN EMPIRE 93 

146. The Athenians convert the Delian League into an 
Empire. The Confederacy of Delos laid the basis of the imperial 
power of Athens. The Athenians misused their authority as 
leaders of the league, and gradually, during the interval between 
the formation of the union and the beginning of the Peloponnesian 
War, reduced their allies to the condition of tributaries and subjects. 

Athens transformed the league into an empire in the following 
manner. The contributions assessed by Aristides upon the dif- 
ferent members of the confederation consisted of ships for the 
larger states and of money payments for the smaller ones. From 
the first, Athens attended to this assessment matter, and saw to 
it that each member of the league made its proper contribution. 

After a while, some of the cities preferring to make a money 
payment in lieu of ships, Athens accepted the commutation, and 
then, building the ships herself, added them to her own navy. 
Thus the confederates disarmed themselves and armed their master. 

Very soon the restraints which Athens imposed upon her allies 
became irksome, and they began to refuse, one after another, to 
pay the assessment in any form. Naxos, one of the Cyclades, was 
the first island to secede from the league (466 B.C.). But Athens 
had no idea of admitting any such doctrine of state rights, and 
with her powerful navy forced the Naxians to remain within the 
union and to pay an increased tribute. 

What happened in the case of Naxos happened in the case of 
other members of the confederation. By the year 449 b.c. only 
three of the island members of the league — Lesbos, Chios, and 
Samos — still retained their independence. They alone of all the 
former allies did not pay tribute. Even before the date last named 
the Athenians had transferred the common treasury from Delos 
to Athens, and, diverting the tribute from its original purpose, 
were beginning to spend it not in the prosecution of war against 
the barbarians but in the carrying on of home enterprises, as 
though the treasure were their own revenue. About this time also 
the congress probably ceased to exist. 

Thus what had been simply a voluntary confederation of 
sovereign and independent cities was converted into what was 



94 



THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 



[§147 



practically an absolute monarchy, with the Attic democracy as 
the imperial master. Thus did Athens become a "tyrant city." 
147. Cimon and Pericles. Two of the most prominent of the 
Athenian leaders at this time were Cimon and Pericles. Cimon, 
a successful admiral, was the leader of a party, aristocratic in its 
sympathies, whose policy was the maintenance in Greece of a 

dual headship, Sparta being al- 
lowed leadership on land am. 
Athens leadership on the sea. 

Cimon was opposed by Pericles, 
who believed that such a double 
leadership was impracticable. The 
aim of his policy was to make 
Athens supreme not only on the 
sea but also on the land. The 
popularity of Cimon at last de- 
clined and he was ostracized. The 
fall of Cimon gave Pericles a free 
hand in the carrying out of his 
ambitious policy. 

148. Construction of the Long 
Walls. As a part of his mari- 
time policy, Pericles persuaded the 
Athenians to push to completion 
what were known as the Long 
Walls, which united Athens to the 
port of Piraeus (see Fig. 38). By means of these great ram- 
parts Athens and her principal port, with the intervening land, 
were converted into a vast fortified district, capable in time of war 
of holding the entire population of Attica. With her communication 
with the sea thus secured, and with a powerful navy at her com- 
mand, Athens could bid defiance to her foes on sea and land. 
149. The Age of Pericles (445-431 B.C.). The period during 
which the influence of Pericles was supreme in Athens is known 
as the Age of Pericles. It was the golden age of Athens. The 
people were at this period the source and fountain of all power. 




Fig. 39. Pericles 



§ 150] THE DICASTERIES 95 

Every matter which concerned Athens and her empire was dis- 
cussed and decided by the popular assembly. Never before in 
the history of the world had any people enjoyed such unrestricted 
political liberty as did the citizens of Athens at this time, and 
never before were any people, through so intimate a knowledge 
of public affairs, so well fitted to take part in the administration of 
government. As a rule, every citizen was qualified to hold public 
office. At all events the Athenians acted upon this assumption, as is 
shown by their extremely democratic practice of filling all the pub- 
lic offices, save a few in the army and navy, by the use of the lot. 

150. The Dicasteries. A characteristic feature of the Athens 
of Pericles was the great popular law courts or tribunals. Each 
year there were chosen by lot from those citizens who wished to 
serve on juries six thousand persons. One thousand were held in 
reserve ; the remaining five thousand were divided into ten sections 
of five hundred each. These divisions were called dicasteries, and 
the members dicasts, or jurymen. The usual number sitting on any 
given case was between two hundred and four hundred. Some- 
times, however, when an important case was to be heard, the jury 
would number two thousand or even more. 

There was an immense amount of law business brought before 
these courts : for they not only tried all cases arising between the 
citizens of Athens, but attended also to a large part of the law 
business of the numerous cities of Athens's great empire. The 
decision of the jurors was final. The judgment of a dicastery was 
never reversed or annulled. 

151. Pericles adorns Athens with Public Buildings. Athens 
having achieved such a position as she now held, it was the idea 
of Pericles that the Athenians should so adorn their city that it 
should be a fitting symbol of the power and glory of their empire. 
Nor was it difficult for him to persuade his art-loving countrymen 
to embellish their city with those masterpieces of architecture that 
in their ruins still excite the admiration of the world. 

The most noteworthy of the Periclean structures were grouped 
upon the Acropolis. Here, as the gateway to the sacred inclosure 
of the citadel, were erected the magnificent Propylaea, which have 



96 THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE [§ 152 

served as a model for similar structures since the time of Pericles. 
Here also was raised the beautiful Parthenon, sacred to the vir- 
gin goddess Athena. The celebrated sculptures of the frieze were 
designed by Phidias. Near the temple stood the colossal bronze 
statue of Athena, — made, it is said, from the spoils of Marathon, 
— whose glittering spear point was a beacon to the mariner 
sailing in from Sunium. 

The Athenians obtained a considerable portion of the money 
needed for the prosecution of their great architectural and art 
undertakings from the treasury of the Delian Confederacy. 
The allies naturally declaimed bitterly against this proceeding, 
complaining that Athens with their money was "adorning herself 
as a vain woman decks her body with gay ornaments." But 
Pericles' answer to these charges was that the money was contrib- 
uted to the end that the cities of the league should be protected 
against the Persians, and that so long as the Athenians kept the 
enemy at a distance they had a right to use the money as 
they pleased. 

152. Strength and Weakness of the Athenian Empire. Under 
Pericles Athens had become the most powerful naval state in the 
world. In one of his last speeches Pericles says to his fellow- 
citizens : " There is not now a king, there is not any nation in 
the universal world, able to withstand that navy which at this 
juncture you can launch out to sea." And this was no empty 
boast. The ^Egean had become an Athenian lake. Its islands and 
coast lands -formed practically an Athenian empire. The revenue 
ships of Athens collected tribute from two hundred Greek cities. 
It seemed almost as though the union of the cities of Hellas was 
to be effected on an imperial basis through the energy and achieve- 
ments of the Athenians. 

But the most significant feature of this new imperial power was 
the remarkable combination of material and intellectual resources 
which it exhibited. Never before had there been such a union 
of the material and the intellectual elements of civilization at 
the seat of empire. Literature and art had been carried to the 
utmost perfection possible to human genius. 



§ 152] CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 97 

But there were elements of weakness in the splendid imperial 
structure. The Athenian Empire was destined to be short-lived 
because the principles upon which it rested were in opposition 
to the deepest instinct of the Greek race, — to that sentiment of 
local patriotism which invested each individual city with political 
sovereignty (sect. 97). The so-called confederates were the sub- 
jects of Athens. To her they paid tribute. To her courts they 
were dragged for trial. 1 Naturally the subject cities of her em- 
pire regarded Athens as the destroyer of Hellenic liberties, and 
watched impatiently for the first favorable moment to revolt and 
throw off the yoke that she had imposed upon them. Hence the 
Athenian Empire rested upon a foundation of sand. 

Had Athens, instead of enslaving her confederates of the Delian 
League, only been able to find some way of retaining them as 
allies in an equal union, — a great and perhaps impossible task 
under the then existing conditions of the Hellenic world, — as 
head of the federated Greek race she might have secured for 
Hellas the sovereignty of the Mediterranean, and the history of 
Rome might have ended with the first century of the republic. 

Illustrations of these weaknesses, as well as of the strength of 
the Athenian Empire, will be afforded by the great struggle be- 
tween Athens and Sparta known as the Peloponnesian War, the 
causes and chief incidents of which we shall next rehearse. 

References. Plutarch, Aristides and Pericles. Curtius, E., vol. ii, pp. 353- 
641. Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), vol. iv, pp. 330-533. Abbott, E., vol. ii, 
pp. 243-415 ; vol. iii, chaps, i, ii. BURY, J. B., History of Greece, chaps, viii, ix. 
Cox, G. W., The Athenian Empire and Lives of Athenian Statesmen. Lloyd, 
W. W., The Age of Pericles, 2 vols. Hopktnson, L. W., Greek Leaders, pp. 37- 
77, "Pericles." Butler, II. C, The Story of Athens, chap. vii. Abbott, E., 
Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens, chaps, x-xviii. GRANT, A. J., Greece in 
the Age of Pericles. TUCKER, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens. 

1 The subject cities were allowed to maintain only their lower courts of justice ; all 
cases of importance, as we have seen (sect. 150), were carried to Athens, and there 
decided in the Attic tribunals. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR; THE SPARTAN AND THE 
THEBAN SUPREMACY 

I. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 b.c.) 

153. The Beginning of the War. Before the end of the life 
of Pericles the growing jealousy between Ionian Athens and Dorian 
Sparta and her allies broke out in the long and calamitous struggle 
known as the Peloponnesian War. One immediate cause of the 
war was the blockade by the Athenians of Potidaea, in Chalcidice. 
This was a Corinthian colony, but it was a member of the 
Delian League, and was now being chastised by Athens for at- 
tempted secession. Corinth had endeavored to lend aid to her 
daughter, but had been worsted in an engagement with the 
Athenians. 

With affairs in this shape, Corinth, supported by other states 
that like herself had causes of complaint against Athens, appealed 
to Sparta, as the head of the Dorian alliance, for aid and justice. 
The Spartans, after listening to the deputies of both sides, decided 
that the Athenians had been guilty of injustice, and declared for 
war. The resolution of the Spartans was indorsed by the Pelopon- 
nesian Confederation, and apparently approved by the Delphian 
oracle, which, in response to an inquiry of the Spartans as to 
what would be the issue of the proposed undertaking, assured 
them that "they would gain the victory, if they fought with all 
their might." 

154. The Peloponnesians ravage Attica (431 B.C.). A Pelo- 
ponnesian army was soon collected at the Isthmus, ready for a 
campaign against Athens. With invasion imminent, the inhabit- 
ants of the hamlets and scattered farmhouses of Attica abandoned 
their homes and sought shelter behind the defenses of the capital. 



§ 155] FUNERAL ORATION OF PERICLES 99 

Into the plain thus deserted the Peloponnesians marched, and 
ravaged the country far and near. From the walls of the city the 
Athenians could see the flames of their burning houses, which re- 
called to the old men the sight they had witnessed from the island 
of Salamis just forty-nine years before, at the time of the Per- 
sian invasion. The failure of provisions finally compelled the 
Peloponnesians to withdraw from the country, and the contingents 
of the different cities scattered to their homes. 

155. Funeral Oration of Pericles. It was the custom of the 
Athenians to bury with public and imposing ceremonies the bodies 
of those slain in battle. After the burial of the remains, some per- 
son chosen by his fellow-citizens on account of his special fitness 
for the service delivered an oration over the dead, extolling their 
deeds and exhorting the living to an imitation of their virtues. 

It was during the winter following the campaign we have men- 
tioned that the Athenians celebrated the funeral ceremonies of 
those who had fallen thus far in the war. Pericles was chosen to 
give the oration on this occasion. This funeral speech, as reported 
by Thucydides, 1 is one of the most valuable memorials preserved 
to us from antiquity. The speaker took advantage of the occa- 
sion to describe the institutions to which Athens owed her great- 
ness, and to picture the glories of the imperial city for which the 
heroes they lamented had died. He praised the Athenian govern- 
ment, in which all the citizens, rich and poor alike, had part. He 
praised, too, Athens's military system, in which the citizen was 
not sacrificed to the soldier, as at Sparta ; and yet Athens was 
alone a match for Sparta and all her allies. He extolled the 
intellectual, moral, and social virtues of the Athenians, which 
were fostered by their free institutions, and declared their city 
to be "the school of Hellas" and the model for all other cities. 



1 Respecting the speeches which Thucydides introduces so frequently in his 
narrative, he himself says : "As to the speeches which were made either before or 
during the war, it was hard for me, and for others who reported them to me, to 
recollect the exact words. I have therefore put into the mouth of each speaker the 
sentiments proper to the occasion, expressed as I thought he would be likely to express 
them, while at the same time I endeavored, as nearly as I could, to give the general 
purport of what was actually said " (Jowett's Thucydides, i. 15). 



IOO 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



[§156 



She would never need a Homer to perpetuate her memory, 
because she herself had set up everywhere eternal monuments 
of her greatness. " Such is the city," the speaker exclaimed im- 
pressively, " for whose sake 
these men nobly fought and 
died ; they could not bear 
the thought that she might 
be taken from them; and 
every one of us who sur- 
vive should gladly toil on 
her behalf." 

Then followed words of 
tribute to the valor and 
self-devotion of the dead, 
whose sepulchers and in- 
scriptions were not the 
graves and the memorial 
stones of the cemetery, — 
"for the whole earth is the 
sepulcher of famous men," 
and the memorials of them 
are "graven not on stone 
but in the hearts of man- 
kind." Finally, with words 
of comfort for the relatives 
of the dead, the orator dis- 
missed the assembly to 
their homes. 1 
156. The Plague at Athens (430-429 B.C.). Upon the return 
of the next campaigning season the Peloponnesians broke once more 
into Attica and ravaged the land anew. The walls of Athens were 

1 TJiucydides, ii. 35-46, for the whole oration. 

2 A bas-relief recently excavated on the Acropolis of Athens. As to the possible 
connection of this relief with the funeral oration of Pericles, Dr. Waldstein says : 
"Though I do not mean to say that the inscription which it surmounted referred 
immediately to those who had fallen in the campaign of 431 B.C., I still feel that the 
most perfect counterpart in literature is the famous funeral oration of Pericles as 
recorded by Thucydides." 




Fig. 41. The So-Called Mourning 
Athena. 2 (From a photograph) 



§157] 



ALCIBIADES 



101 



unassailable by the hostile army ; but unfortunately they were no 
defense against a more terrible foe. A pestilence broke out in 
the crowded city and added its horrors to the already unbearable 
calamities of war. The mortality was frightful. One fourth of the 
population of the city was swept away. In the third year of 
the war the plague reappeared at Athens. Pericles, who had been 
the very soul and life of Athens dur- ^^^ 

ing all these dark days, fell a vic- 
tim to the disease. 

After the death of Pericles the 
leadership of affairs at Athens fell 
to a great degree into the hands of 
demagogues. The mob element got 
control of the Ecclesia, so that 
hereafter we shall find many of its 
measures marked neither by virtue 
nor by wisdom. 

157. Alcibiades. About midway 
in the long war — it lasted, with 
intervals of nominal peace, twenty- 
seven years — there came into promi- 
nence at Athens a new leader of the demos, who played a 
most conspicuous part, not only in Athenian but also in Hellenic 
affairs, from this time on to near the close of the war. This was 
Alcibiades, a young man of noble lineage and of aristocratic as- 
sociations. He was versatile, brilliant, and resourceful, but un- 
scrupulous, reckless, and profligate. He was a pupil of Socrates, 
but he failed to follow the counsels of his teacher. His astonishing 
escapades kept all Athens talking, yet seemed only to attach the 
people more closely to him, for he possessed all those personal 
traits which make men popular idols. His influence over the 
democracy was unlimited. He was able to carry through the 
Ecclesia almost any measure that it pleased him to advocate. 

The more prudent of the Athenians were filled with apprehen- 
sion for the future of the state under such guidance. The noted 
misanthrope Timon gave expression to this feeling when, after 




Fig. 42. Alcibiades 



102 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR [§ 158 

Alcibiades had secured the assent of the popular assembly to one 
of his impolitic measures, he said to him : " Go on, my brave boy, 
and prosper ; for your prosperity will bring on the ruin of all this 
crowd." And it did, as we shall see. 

158. The Sicilian Expedition (415-413 B.C.). The most pros- 
perous enterprise of Alcibiades, in the Timonian sense, was the 
inciting of the Athenians to undertake an expedition against the 
Dorian city of Syracuse, in Sicily. The resolution to engage in 
the tremendous enterprise seems to have been taken lightly by the 
Athenians, which was quite in keeping with their usual way of 
doing things. The vastness of the armament needed seemed to 
captivate their imagination. The expedition further presented 
itself to the ardent imagination of the youth as a sort of pleasure 
and sight-seeing excursion among the wonders of the land of the 
u Far West." And so it came about that, in a special meeting of 
the Ecclesia, the assembly, almost without a dissenting voice, 
voted for the fateful adventure. 

An immense fleet was carefully equipped and manned. 1 Anx- 
iously did those remaining behind watch the departing ships until 
they were lost to sight. Could the anxious watchers have foreseen 
the fate of the splendid armament, their anxiety would have passed 
into despair. "Athens itself was sailing out of the Piraeus, never 
to return." 

Scarcely had the expedition arrived at Sicily before Alcibiades, who 
was one of thegenerals in command of the armament, was summoned 
back to Athens to answer a charge of impiety. Fearing to trust him- 
self in the hands of his enemies at Athens, he fled to Sparta, and 
there, by traitorous counsel, did all in his power to ruin the very 
expedition he had planned. The surest way, he told the Spartans, 
in which to wreck the plans of the Athenians was to send to Sicily at 
once a force of heavy-armed men, and above all a good Spartan gen- 
eral, who alone would be worth a whole army. The Spartans acted 
upon this advice and sent to Sicily their ablest general, Gylippus, 
with instructions to push the war there with the utmost vigor. 

1 It consisted of one hundred and thirty-four costly triremes, bearing thirty-six 
thousand soldiers and sailors. 



§ 159] THE FALL OF ATHENS 103 

The affairs of the Athenians in Sicily at just this time were 
prospering greatly. But the arrival of Gylippus changed everything 
at once. After some severe fighting, in which the Athenians lost 
heavily, they resolved to withdraw their forces from the island 
while retreat by the sea was still open to them. 

Just as the ships were about to weigh anchor, there occurred 
an eclipse of the moon. Nicias, the general in chief command, 
unfortunately was a superstitious man, having full faith in omens 
and divination. He sought the advice of his soothsayers. They 
pronounced the portent an unfavorable one, and advised that the 
retreat be delayed thirty-seven days. Never did a reliance upon 
omens more completely undo a people. The delay was fatal. 

Further disaster and a failure of provisions finally convinced the 
Athenians that they must without longer delay fight their way out 
by sea or by land. But already it was too late. The attempt to 
force their way through the enemy's fleet in the harbor failed 
dismally. There was now no course open save retreat by land. 
Making such preparations as they could for their march, they 
set out. Pursued and harassed by the Syracusans, the fleeing 
multitude was practically annihilated. The prisoners, about seven 
thousand in number, were crowded in deep, open stone quarries 
around Syracuse, where hundreds soon died of exposure and star- 
vation. Most of the wretched survivors were finally sold as slaves. 
The tragedy of the Sicilian expedition was ended. 

159. The Fall of Athens (404 B.C.). With most admirable 
courage the Athenians, after the great disaster in Sicily, set to 
work to retrieve their seemingly irretrievable fortune. Forgetting 
and forgiving the past, they recalled Alcibiades and gave him com- 
mand of the army, thereby well illustrating what the poet Aris- 
tophanes said respecting the disposition of the Athenians toward 
the spoiled favorite, — "They love, they hate, but cannot live 
without him." 

Alcibiades gained some splendid victories for Athens. But he 
could not undo the evil he had done. He had ruined Athens be- 
yond redemption by any human power. The struggle grew more 
and more hopeless. Finally, at yEgospotami, on the Hellespont, 



104 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR [§ 160 

the Athenian fleet was surprised and captured by the Spartan 
general Lysander (405 B.C.). The native Athenians, to the number 
of four thousand it is said, were put to death, the usual rites of 
burial being denied their bodies. Among the few Athenian vessels 
that escaped capture was the state ship Paralus, which hastened 
to Athens with the tidings of the terrible misfortune. It arrived in 
the nighttime, and from the Piraeus! the awful news, published by 
a despairing wail, spread up the Long Walls into the upper city. 
"That night," says Xenophon, "no one slept." 

Besieged by sea and land, Athens was soon forced to surrender. 
Some of the allies insisted upon a total destruction of the city. 
The Spartans, however, with apparent magnanimity, declared 
that they would never consent thus "to put out one of the eyes 
of Greece." The real motive of the Spartans in sparing the city 
was their fear lest, with Athens blotted out, Thebes or Corinth 
should become too powerful, and the leadership of Sparta be 
thereby endangered. The final resolve was that the lives of the 
Athenians should be spared, but that they should be required to 
demolish their Long Walls and those of the Piraeus, to give up all 
their ships save twelve, and to bind themselves to do Sparta's 
bidding by sea and land. The Athenians were forced to surrender 
on these hard conditions. 

The long war was now over. The dominion of the imperial city 
of Athens was at an end, and the great days of Greece were past. 

160. The Results of the War. Greece never recovered from 
the effects of the war which had destroyed so large a part of her 
population. Athens was merely the wreck of her former self. 
The harbor of the Piraeus, once crowded with ships, was now 
empty. The population of the capital had been terribly thinned. 
Things were just the reverse now of what they were at the time 
of the Persian invasion, when, with Athens in ruins, Themistocles 
at Salamis, taunted with being a man without a city, could truth- 
fully declare that Athens was there on the sea in her ships. Now 
the real Athens was gone ; only the empty shell remained. 

Not Athens alone, but all Hellas, bore the marks of the cruel 
war. Sites once covered with pleasant villages or flourishing towns 



§ 161] THE SPARTAN SUPREMACY 105 

were now plough and pasture land. The Greek world had sunk 
many degrees in morality, while the vigor and productiveness of 
the intellectual and artistic life of Hellas were impaired beyond 
recovery. The achievements of the Greek intellect in the century 
following the war were, it is true, wonderful ; but these triumphs 
merely show, we may believe, what the Hellenic mind would have 
done for art and general culture had it been permitted, unchecked, 
and under the favoring and inspiring conditions of liberty and 
self-government, to disclose all that was latent in it. 

II. THE SPARTAN AND THE THEBAN SUPREMACY 

161. Character of the Spartan Supremacy. For just one 
generation following the Peloponnesian War (404-371 B.C.) Sparta 
held the leadership of the Greek states. Throughout that struggle 
she had maintained that her only purpose in warring against 
Athens was to regain for the Greek cities the liberty of which she 
had deprived them. But no sooner was the power of Athens broken 
than Sparta herself began to play the tyrant. The outcome of her 
oppressive tyranny we shall notice directly. 

162. The Expedition of the Ten Thousand Greeks (401- 
400 B.C.). One of the most memorable episodes of the period of 
Spartan supremacy was the famous expedition of the Ten Thou- 
sand Greeks. Cyrus, brother of the Persian king Artaxerxes II 
and satrap in Asia Minor, feeling that he had been unjustly ex- 
cluded from the throne by his brother, secretly planned to de- 
throne him. From various quarters he gathered an army of over 
a hundred thousand barbarians and about thirteen thousand Greek 
mercenaries. Setting out from Sardis, he had marched through 
Asia Minor and across the Mesopotamian plains, thus penetrating 
to the very heart of the Persian Empire, before, at Cunaxa in 
Babylonia, his farther advance was disputed by Artaxerxes with 
an immense army. In the battle which here followed, the splendid 
conduct of the Greeks won the day for their leader. Cyrus, 
however, was slain ; and the Greek generals, lured to a con- 
ference, were treacherously seized and put to death. 



106 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR [§163 

The Greeks, in a hurried night meeting, chose new generals to 
lead them back to their homes. One of these was Xenophon, the 
popular historian of the expedition. Now commenced one of the 
most memorable retreats in all history. After a most harassing 
march over the hot plains of the Tigris and the icy passes of 
Armenia, the survivors reached the Black Sea, the abode of sister 
Greek colonies. 

The march of the Ten Thousand is regarded as one of the 
most remarkable military exploits of antiquity. Its historical 
significance is owing to the fact that it paved the way for the 
later expedition of Alexander the Great. This it did by revealing 
to the Greeks the decayed state of the Persian Empire, and showing 
how feeble was the resistance which it could offer to the march 
of an army of disciplined soldiers. 

163. The Condemnation and Death of Socrates (399 B.C.). 
While Xenophon was yet away on his expedition there happened 
in his native city one of the saddest tragedies in history. This 
was the trial and condemnation to death by the Athenians of 
their fellow-citizen Socrates, the greatest moral teacher of pagan 
antiquity. The double charge upon which he was condemned was 
worded as follows: "Socrates is guilty of crime, — first, for not 
worshiping the gods whom the city worships, but in introducing 
new divinities of his own ; next, for corrupting the youth." The 
trial was before a dicastery or citizen court (sect. 150) composed 
of over five hundred jurors, and the sentence of death was pro- 
nounced by a majority vote. 

After his condemnation Socrates was led to prison, and there 
remained for about thirty days before the execution of the 
sentence. This period Socrates spent in serene converse with his 
friends upon those lofty themes that had occupied his thoughts 
during all his life. When at last the hour for his departure had 
arrived, he bade his friends farewell, and then calmly drank the 
cup of poison. 

164. The Battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.). Throughout the period 
of her supremacy Sparta continued to deal most tyrannically 
with the other Greek cities. One of her worst crimes was the 



§ 164] THE BATTLE OF LEUCTRA 107 

treacherous seizure of the citadel of Thebes and the placing of a 
Spartan garrison in it. All Greece stood aghast at this perfidious 
and high-handed act, and looked to see some awful misfortune 
befall Sparta as a retribution. 

And misfortune came speedily enough, and not single-handed. 
The Spartan garrison was driven out of the citadel by an uprising 
of the Thebans. A Spartan army was soon in Bceotia. The 
Thebans met the invaders at Leuctra. The Spartans had no other 
thought than that they should gain an easy victory. But the mili- 
tary genius of the Theban commander, Epaminondas, had pre- 
pared for Hellas a startling surprise. Hitherto the Greeks had 
fought drawn up in extended and comparatively thin opposing 
lines, not more than twelve ranks deep. The Spartans at Leuctra 
formed their line in the usual way. Epaminondas, on the other 
hand, massed his best troops in a solid column, that is in a 
phalanx, fifty deep, on the left of his battle line, the rest being 
drawn up in the ordinary extended line. With all ready for the 
attack, the phalanx was set in motion first. It ploughed through 
the thin line of the enemy " as the beak of a ship ploughs through 
a wave," — and the day was won. Of the seven hundred Spartans in 
the fight four hundred were killed. It was the first time that a 
Spartan army with its king had been fairly beaten in a great 
battle by an enemy inferior in numbers. The Spartan forces at 
Thermopylae headed by their king had, it is true, been annihilated, 
— but annihilation is not defeat. 

The manner in which the news of the overwhelming calamity 
was received at Sparta affords a striking illustration of Spartan 
discipline and self-control. It so happened that when the mes- 
senger arrived the Spartans were celebrating a festival. The 
Ephors would permit no interruption of the entertainment. They 
merely sent lists of the fallen to their families, and ordered that 
the women should make no lamentation nor show any signs of 
grief. "The following day," says Xenophon, " those who had 
lost relatives in the battle appeared on the streets with cheerful 
faces, while those whose relatives had escaped, if they appeared in 
public at all, went about with sad and dejected looks." When 



108 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR [§ 165 

we contrast this scene at Sparta with that at Athens upon the 
night of the receipt of the news of the disaster of ^Egospotami 
(sect. 159), we are impressed with the wide difference in spirit or 
temperament between the Athenian and the Spartan. 

165. The Theban Supremacy (371-362 B.C. ). From the vic- 
tory of Leuctra dates the short but brilliant period of Theban 
supremacy. The year after that battle Epaminondas led an army 
into the Peloponnesus to aid the Arcadians against Sparta. Laconia 
was ravaged, and for the first time Spartan women saw the smoke 
of the camp fires of an enemy. 

But, moved by jealousy of the rapidly growing power of Thebes, 
Athens now formed an alliance with her old rival Sparta against 
her. Three times more did Epaminondas lead an army into the 
Peloponnesus. Upon his last expedition he fought with the 
Spartans and Athenians the great battle of Mantinea, in Arcadia. 
On this memorable field Epaminondas led the Thebans once more 
to victory ; but he himself was slain, and with him fell the hopes 
and power of Thebes (362 B.C.). 

All the chief cities of Greece now lay in a state of exhaustion or 
of helpless isolation. Sparta had destroyed the empire of Athens ; 
Thebes had broken the dominion of Sparta, but had exhausted 
herself in the effort. There was now no city energetic, resourceful, 
unbroken in spirit and strength, such as was Athens at the time 
of the Persian Wars, to act as leader and champion of the Greek 
states. Yet never was there greater need of such leadership in 
Hellas than at just this moment ; for the Macedonian monarchy 
was now rising in the north and threatening the independence of 
all Greece. 

References. Plutarch, Alcibiades. Thucydides, ii, 35-46 (the funeral 
oration of Pericles). Curtius, E., vols, iii, iv. Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), 
vols, v-viii. Abbott, E., vol. iii, chaps, iii-xii. Holm, A., vol. ii, chaps, xxi- 
xxviii ; vol. iii, chaps, i-xiii. Bury, J. B., Histoiy of Greece, chaps, x-xiv. Cox, 
G. W., Lives of Greek Statesmen, "Demosthenes" and " Nikias." Creasy, 
E. S., Decisive Battles of the World, chap, ii, " Defeat of the Athenians at 
Syracuse, B.C. 413." Sankey, C, The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. 
Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chaps, x-xiv. Hopkinson, L. W., 
Greek Leaders (" Alcibiades," " Socrates," and " Epaminondas "). 



CHAPTER XVIII 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

(336-323 B.C.) 

166. The Macedonians and their Rulers. Macedonia was a 
country lying north of the Cambunian Mountains and back of 
Chalcidice (see map, p. 54). The people were for the most part 
mountaineers still in the tribal state. 1 They were Aryans in speech 
and close kin to the Greeks, but since they did not speak pure 
Greek and were backward in culture, they were looked upon as 
barbarians by their more refined city kinsmen of the South. The 
ruling race in the country, however, claimed to be of genuine 
Hellenic stock, and this claim had been allowed by the Greeks, 
who had permitted them to appear as contestants in the Olympian 
games, — a privilege, it will be recalled, accorded only to those 
who could prove pure Hellenic ancestry. 

167. Philip of Macedon. Macedonia first rose to importance 
under Philip II (359-336 B.C.), generally known as Philip of 
Macedon. He was a man of preeminent ability. The art of war 
he had learned in youth as a hostage-pupil of Epaminondas of 
Thebes. The "Macedonian phalanx," 2 which he is said to have 
originated, and which holds some such place in the military his- 
tory of Macedonia as the "legion" holds in that of Rome, was 
simply a modification of the Theban phalanx that won the day 
at Leuctra and again at Mantinea. 

With his kingdom settled and consolidated at home, Philip's 
ambition led him to seek the leadership of the Greek states. 

1 There were, however, a few towns in Macedonia, of which JEgse and Pella, each of 
which was in turn the seat of the royal court, were of chief note. 

2 The phalanx was formed of soldiers drawn up sixteen files deep and armed with 
pikes so long that those of the first five ranks projected beyond the front of the 
column, thus opposing a perfect thicket of spears to the enemy. On level ground it 
was irresistible. 

109 



no 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



[§168 



168. Battle of Chseronea (338 B.C.)- Philip quickly extended 
his power over a large part of Thrace and the Greek cities of 
Chalcidice. He was on the way to make himself master of all 
Greece. Demosthenes at Athens was one of the few who seemed 

to understand the real designs of 
Philip. With all the energy of his 
wonderful eloquence he strove to stir 
up the Athenians to resist Philip's en- 
croachments. He hurled against him 
his famous "Philippics," speeches so 
filled with fierce denunciation that 
they have given name to all writings 
characterized by bitter criticism or 
violent invective. 

At length the Athenians and The- 
bans, aroused by the eloquence of 
Demosthenes and by some fresh en- 
croachments of Philip, united their 
forces, and met him upon the memo- 
rable field of Chaeronea in Bceotia. 
The battle was stubbornly fought, but 
finally went against the allies. The 
power and authority of Philip were 
now extended and acknowledged 
throughout Greece. 

169. Philip's Plan to invade 
Asia; his Death (336 B.C.). Soon 
after the battle of Chseronea, Philip 
convened at Corinth a council of the 
Greek states. His main object in 
calling the congress was to secure aid in an expedition for the 
conquest of the Persian Empire. The exploit of the Ten Thousand 
Greeks had shown the feasibility of such an undertaking (sect. 
162). The plan was indorsed by the congress. Every Greek city 
was to furnish a contingent for the army of invasion. Philip was 
chosen leader of the expedition. 




Fig. 43. Demosthenes 
(Vatican Museum) 

If thy power, Demosthenes, had 
been as great as thy spirit never 
had Hellas bowed before the 
Macedonian sword. — Plutarch 



§170] 



THE YOUTH OF ALEXANDER 



in 



All Greece was now astir with preparations for the great adven- 
ture. By the spring of the year 336 b.c. the expedition was 
ready to move. In the midst of all, Philip was assassinated, and 
his son Alexander succeeded to his place and power. 

170. The Youth of Alexander. Alexander was only twenty 
years of age when he came to his father's throne. Certain in- 
fluences under which the boy came in his earliest years left a 
permanent impress upon his mind and character. By his mother 
he was taught to trace his descent from the great Achilles, and was 
incited to emulate his exploits and to make 
him his model in all things. The Iliad, which 
recounts the deeds of that mythical hero, 
became the prince's inseparable companion. 

After his mother's influence, perhaps that 
of the philosopher Aristotle, whom Philip 
persuaded to become the tutor of the youth- 
ful Alexander, was the most formative. 
This great teacher implanted in the mind 
of the young prince a love of literature and 
philosophy, and through his inspiring com- 
panionship exercised over the eager, im- 
pulsive boy an influence for good which 
Alexander himself gratefully acknowledged 
in later years. 

171. Alexander crosses the Hellespont ; the Battle of the 
Granicus (334 B.C.). Alexander carried out his father's scheme 
in regard to the Asiatic expedition. In the spring of 334 b.c. he 
set out at the head of an army numbering about thirty-five thou- 
sand men for the conquest of the Persian Empire. Crossing the 
Hellespont, he met on the banks of the Granicus a Persian army, 
over which he gained a decisive victory. All Asia Minor now lay 
open to the invader, and soon practically all of its cities and tribes 
were brought to acknowledge the authority of the Macedonian. 1 




Fig. 44. Alexander 

the Great 
(Capitoline Museum) 



1 At Gordium, in Phrygia, Alexander performed an exploit which has given the 
world one of its favorite apothegms. In the temple at this place was a chariot to the 
pole of which a yoke was fastened by a curiously intricate knot. An oracle had been 



H2 ALEXANDER THE GREAT [§172 

172. The Battle of Issus (333 B.C.). At the northeast corner 
of the Mediterranean lies the plain of Issus. Here Alexander met 
and defeated another great Persian army. The king himself 1 
escaped from the field, and hastened to his capital Susa to raise 
another army to oppose the march of the conqueror. 

173. Alexander in Egypt. With Syria and the cities of 
Phoenicia subject to his will, Alexander marched down into Egypt. 
The Egyptians made no resistance to him, but willingly exchanged 
masters. While in the country, Alexander founded at one of the 
mouths of the Nile a city named after himself Alexandria. The 
city became the meeting place of the East and the West. Its im- 
portance through many centuries attests the farsighted wisdom 
of its founder. 

A less worthy enterprise of the conqueror was his expedition to 
the oasis of Siwah, located in the Libyan desert, where were a 
celebrated temple and oracle of Zeus Ammon. To gratify his 
vanity, to impress his new oriental subjects, and especially to 
qualify himself as the legitimate successor of the divine Pharaoh, 
Alexander desired to be declared of celestial descent. The priests 
of the temple, in accordance with the wish of the king, gave out 
that the oracle pronounced Alexander to be the son of Zeus and 
the destined ruler of the world. 

174. The Battle of Arbela (331 B.C.). From Egypt Alexander 
retraced his steps to Syria and marched eastward. At Arbela, 
not far from the ancient Nineveh, his farther advance was dis- 
puted by Darius with an immense army. The Persian host was 
overthrown with enormous slaughter. Darius fled from the field, 
as he had done at Issus, and later was treacherously killed by 
an attendant. 

The battle of Arbela was one of the decisive combats of history. 
It marked the end of the long struggle between the East and the 
West, between Persia and Greece, and prepared the way for the 
spread of Hellenic civilization over all western Asia. 

spread abroad to the effect that whoever should untie the knot would become master of 
Asia. Alexander attempted the feat. Unable to loosen the knot, he drew his sword and 
cut it. Hence the phrase "cutting the Gordian knot," — meaning a short way out of a 
difficulty. l Darius III (336-330 B.C.). 



§175] ALEXANDER AT BABYLON 113 

175. Alexander at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. From the 
field of Arbela Alexander marched south to Babylon, which opened 
its gates to him without opposition. Susa was next entered by 
the conqueror. Here he seized incredible quantities of gold and 
silver ($57,000,000, it is said), the treasure of the Great King. 

From Susa Alexander's march was directed to Persepolis, where 
he secured a treasure more than twice as great as that found at 
Susa. Upon Persepolis Alexander wreaked vengeance for all that 
Greece had suffered at the hands of the Persians. Many of the 
inhabitants were massacred and others sold into slavery, while the 
palaces of the Persian kings were given to the flames. 1 

176. Conquests in India. With the tribes of what is now 
known as Afghanistan subdued, and the remote countries of 
Bactria and Sogdiana, lying north of the Hindu Kush, conquered 
and settled, Alexander recrossed the mountains and led his army 
down into the rich and crowded plains of India (327 B.C.). Here 
again he showed himself invincible, and received the submission 
of many of the native princes. 

Alexander's desire was to extend his conquests to the Ganges, 
but his soldiers began to murmur at the length and hardness of 
their campaigns, and reluctantly he turned back. His return route 
lay through the ancient Gedrosia, now Baluchistan, a region 
frightful with burning deserts, amidst which his soldiers endured 
almost incredible privations and sufferings. After a trying and 
calamitous march of over two months, Alexander, with the sur- 
vivors of his army, reached Carmania in Persia. 

177. The Plans and Death of Alexander. As the capital of 
his vast empire, which now stretched from the Ionian Sea to the 
Indus, Alexander chose the ancient Babylon, upon the Euphrates, 
for the reason that such a location of the seat of government would 
help to promote his plans, which aimed at nothing less than the 
union and Hellenizing of the world. 

In the midst of his vast projects Alexander was seized by a 
fever, brought on doubtless by his insane excesses, and died 
at Babylon, 323 b.c, in the thirty-second year of his age. His 

1 Read Dryden's Alexander's Feast.' 



ii4 ALEXANDER THE GREAT [§178 

soldiers could not let him die without seeing him. The watchers of 
the palace were obliged to open the doors to them, and the veterans 
of a hundred battlefields filed sorrowfully past the couch of their 
dying commander. His body was carried first to Memphis, but 
afterwards to Alexandria, in Egypt, and there inclosed in a golden 
coffin, over which was raised a splendid mausoleum. His ambition 
for celestial honors was gratified in his death ; for in Egypt and 
elsewhere temples were dedicated to him, and divine worship was 
paid to his statues. 

178. Results of Alexander's Conquests. The remarkable con- 
quests of Alexander had far-reaching consequences. First, they 
ended the long struggle between Persia and Greece, and spread 
Hellenic civilization over Egypt and western Asia. It is particu- 
larly this spreading abroad of the culture of Greece which makes 
the short-lived Macedonian Empire of such importance in uni- 
versal history. 

Second, the distinction between Greek and barbarian was ef- 
faced, and the sympathies of men, hitherto so narrow and local, 
were widened, and thus an important preparation was made for 
the reception of the Christian creed of universal brotherhood. 

Third, the world was given a universal language of culture, 
which was a further preparation for the spread of Christian 
teachings. 

But the evil effects of these conquests were also positive and 
far-reaching. The sudden acquisition by the Greeks of the enor- 
mous wealth of the Persian Empire, and contact with the vices 
and the effeminate luxury of the oriental nations, had a most 
demoralizing effect upon Hellenic life. Greece became corrupt, 
and she in turn corrupted Rome. Thus the civilization of classical 
antiquity was undermined. 

References. Plutarch, Demosthenes and Alexander. Pickard-Cambridge, 
A. W., Demosthenes. Wheeler, B. I., Alexander. Dodge, T. A., Alexander. 
Hogarth, D. G., Philip and Alexander of. Macedon and The Ancient East, 
chap. v. Mahaffy, J. B., The Story of Alexander's Empire, chaps, i-v ; Greek 
Life and Thought, chap, ii ; and Problems in Greek History, chap, vii, " Practical 
Politics in the Fourth Century." 



CHAPTER XJ& , 

THE GR^CO-ORIENTAL WORLD FRtfiyi THE DEATH OF ALEX- 
ANDER TO THE CONQUEST OF GREECE BY THE ROMANS 
(323-146 B.C.) 

179. Hellenistic Culture. It has already been noticed that one 
of the most important results of the conquests of Alexander was 
the spreading of Greek culture over the countries of the Near East. 
It was chiefly through two agencies that the Greek language and 
arts and Greek letters were spread throughout the Orient. These 
were, first, the courts of the successors of Alexander which were 
established in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt ; and, second, the 
hundreds of Greek cities which were founded throughout all the 
regions included in the kingdoms of these Graeco-Macedonian 
rulers. Each court and each city was the radiating center of Greek 
culture and arts. The new cities, however, which were the more 
effective of the two agencies in the spread of Greek culture, 
were founded generally in the midst of a dense native population 
more or less advanced in civilization. In this environment Hellenic 
culture in all its elements — language, arts, manners and customs, 
ways of living, and ways of thinking — inevitably became modified, 
in some countries less, in others more. We indicate this changed 
character of the civilization by calling it Hellenistic, 1 thereby 
distinguishing it from the pure Hellenic culture of Greece. 

The formation of this Hellenistic or Grseco-oriental culture is 
one of the great matters of universal history, a matter like the 
formation later of the Graeco- Roman civilization in the great 
melting-pot of the world-empire of Rome. 

In the remaining sections of this chapter we shall speak briefly 
of some noteworthy matters in the history of continental Greece 

1 From Hellenist, a non-Greek who adopts the Greek language and imitates Greek 
manners and customs. 

"5 



n6 THE GR^CO-ORIENTAL WORLD [§180 

during the Hellenistic period and of the leading kingdoms that 
resulted from the break-up of the empire of Alexander. 

180. Macedonia. Before the close of the fourth century b.c. 
the vast empire created by Alexander's unparalleled conquests had 
become broken into many fragments. Besides minor states, 1 three 
kingdoms of special importance, centering in Macedonia, Syria, 
and Egypt, rose out of the ruins. All were finally overwhelmed by 
the now rapidly rising power of Rome. 

The story of Macedonia from the death of Alexander on to the 
conquest of the country by the Romans is made up largely of the 
quarrels and crimes of rival aspirants for the crown that Philip 
and Alexander had worn. The country was one of the first east 
of the Adriatic to come in hostile contact with the great military 
republic of the West. After much intrigue and a series of wars, 
the country was eventually brought into subjection to the Italian 
power and made into a Roman province (146 b.c). A large part 
of the population were sold as slaves. Not a man of note was left 
in the country. The great but short role Macedonia had played 
in history was ended. 

181. Continental Greece. From the subjection of Greece by 
Philip of Macedon to the absorption of Macedonia into the growing 
dominions of Rome, the Greek cities of the peninsula were, much 
of the time, under the real or nominal overlordship of the Macedo- 
nian kings. 

In the third century b.c. there arose in Greece two important 
confederacies, known as the Achaean and vEtolian leagues, whose 
history embraces almost every matter of interest and instruction 
in the later political life of the Greek cities. These late attempts 

1 Of these lesser states the following should be noted : 

a. Rhodes. The city of Rhodes, on the island of the same name, became the head 
of a federation of adjacent island and coast cities, and thus laid the basis of a remarkable 
commercial prosperity and naval power. It was one of the chief centers of Hellenistic 
culture, and acquired a wide fame through its schools of art and rhetoric. Julius Caesar 
and Cicero both studied here under Rhodian teachers of oratory. 

b. Pontus. Pontus (Greek for sea), a state of Asia Minor, was so called from its 
position upon the Euxine. It was never thoroughly conquered by the Macedonians. It 
has a place in history mainly because of the luster shed upon it by the transcendent 
ability of one of its kings, Mithradates the Great (sect. 278). 



§182] THE SYRIAN KINGDOM 117 

at federation among the Grecian cities were fostered by the intense 
desire of all patriotic Hellenes to free themselves from the hated 
arbitership of Macedonia. The Greeks had learned at last — 
but unhappily too late — that the liberty they prized so highly 
could be maintained only through union. 

Both of the leagues were broken up by Rome. In the year 
146 B.C., Corinth, the most important member of the Achaean 
League, was taken by the Romans, the men were killed, the women 
and children sold into slavery, the rich art treasures of the city 
sent as trophies to Rome, and its temples and other buildings given 
to the flames. Later all Greece, under the name of Achaea, was 
reduced to the status of a Roman province. 

182. The Syrian Kingdom. During the two centuries and 
more of its existence the Syrian kingdom played an important part 
in the civil history of the world. Under its first king it comprised 
nominally almost all the countries of Asia conquered by Alexander, 
thus stretching from the Hellespont to the Indus ; but in reality the 
monarchy embraced only Asia Minor, part of Syria, and the old 
Assyria and Babylonia. Its rulers were called Seleucidae, from 
the founder of the kingdom, Seleucus Nicator, famous as the 
builder of cities. The successors of Seleucus Nicator led the king- 
dom through checkered fortunes. On different sides provinces fell 
away and became independent states. 1 At last, coming into col- 
lision with Rome, the kingdom was destroyed, and its lands were 
incorporated with the Roman Republic (63 B.C.). 

183. The Kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt (323-30 B.C.). 
The Graeco-Egyptian empire of the Ptolemies, founded by 
Ptolemy I, surnamed Soter, was by far the most important, in its 
influence upon the civilization of the world, of all the kingdoms 
that owed their origin to the conquests of Alexander. Under 
Ptolemy I, Alexandria became the great depot of exchange for the 
products of the ancient world. At the entrance of the harbor stood 

1 The most noteworthy of these was Pergamum, a state in western Asia Minor which 
became independent upon the death of Seleucus Nicator (281 B.C.). Its capital, also 
called Pergamum, became a most noted center of Greek learning and civilization, and 
through its great library and university gained the renown of being, next to Alexandria 
in Egypt, the greatest city of the Hellenistic world. 



n8 THE GR^CO-ORIENTAL WORLD [§184 

the Pharos, or lighthouse, — the first structure of its kind. This 
edifice was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. 

But it was not alone the exchange of material products that 
was comprehended in Ptolemy's scheme. His aim was to make his 
capital the intellectual center of the world — the place where the 
arts, sciences, literatures, and even the religions of the world 
should meet and mingle. He founded the famous Museum, a sort 
of college, which became the "University of the East," and estab- 
lished the renowned Alexandrian Library. He encouraged poets, 
artists, philosophers, and teachers in all departments of learning 
to settle in Alexandria by conferring upon them immunities and 
privileges, and by gifts and a munificent patronage. His court 
embraced the learning and genius of the age. 

The rule of the Ptolemies in Egypt lasted almost exactly three 
centuries (323-30 B.C.). The story of the beautiful but dissolute 
Cleopatra, the last of the house of the Ptolemies, belongs properly 
to the history of Rome, which city was now interfering in the 
affairs of the Orient. In the year 30 B.C., the year which marks 
the death of Cleopatra, Egypt was made a Roman province. 

184. Conclusion. We have now traced the political fortunes 
of the Greek race through about six centuries of authentic history. 
In succeeding chapters, in order to render more complete the pic- 
ture we have endeavored to draw of ancient Hellas, we shall add 
some details respecting Hellenic art, literature, philosophy, and 
society. Even a short study of these matters will help us to form 
a more adequate conception of that wonderful, many-sided genius 
of the Hellenic race which enabled Hellas, "captured, to lead 
captive her captor." 

References. Holm, A., vol. iv (the best history in English of the period). 
Gardner, E. A., New Chapters in Greek History, chap, xv, "The Successors 
of Alexander and Greek Civilization in the East." Mahaffy, J. B., The Story 
of Alexanders Empire, chaps, vi-xxxii ; Greek Life and Thought fro?n the 
Age of Alexander to the Roman Conquest ; and The Progress of Hellenism in 
Alexander's Empire. 



CHAPTER XX 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND PAINTING 

185. Introductory : the Greek Sense of Beauty. The Greeks 
were artists by nature. Everything they made, from the shrines 
for their gods to the meanest utensils of domestic use, was beau- 
tiful. " Ugliness gave them pain like a blow." Beauty they placed 
next to holiness ; indeed, they almost or quite made beauty and 
goodness the same thing. They are said to have thought it strange 
that Socrates was good, seeing he was so homely. 

I. ARCHITECTURE 

186. Orders of Greek Architecture. By the close of the sixth 
century Greek architecture had made considerable advance and 
presented three distinct styles, or orders. These are commonly 
known as the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian (Fig. 45). 
They are distinguished from one another chiefly by differences in 
the proportions and ornamentation of the column. 

The Doric column is without a base and has a plain capital. 
At first the Doric temples of the Greeks were almost as massive 
as those of the Egyptians, but gradually they grew less heavy. 

The Ionic column is characterized chiefly by the volutes, or 
spiral scrolls, of its capital, but is also marked by its fluting, its 
base, and its slender proportions. This form was principally em- 
ployed by the Greeks of Ionia, whence its name. 

The Corinthian order is distinguished by its rich capital, formed 
of acanthus leaves. This order was not much employed in Greece 
before the time of Alexander the Great. 

The entire structure was made to harmonize with its supporting 
columns. The general characteristics of the orders are happily 
suggested by the terms we use when we speak of the severe Doric, 
the graceful Ionic, and the ornate Corinthian. 

119 



120 



GREEK ARCHITECTURE 



[§187 



Speaking of the place which these styles held in Greek archi- 
tecture and have held in that of the world since Greek times, an 
eminent authority says, "We may admit that the invention and 
perfecting of these orders of Greek architecture has been (with 
one exception — the introduction of the arch) the most important 
event in the architectural history of the world." 




Doric Ionic Corinthian 

Fig. 45. Orders of Greek Architecture 

It was religious feeling which created the noblest monuments 
of the architectural genius of Hellas. Hence in the few words 
which we shall have to say about Greek buildings our attention 
will be confined almost exclusively to the temples of Greece. 

187. The Delphian Temple. One of the oldest temple sites in 
Greece was at Delphi. In the year 548 B.C. the temple then stand- 
ing was destroyed by fire. All the cities and states of Hellas con- 
tributed to its rebuilding. The later structure was impressive from 
both its colossal size and the massive simplicity that characterizes 
the Doric style of architecture. It was crowded with the spoils 
of many battlefields, with the rich gifts of kings, and with rare 
works of art. 1 After remaining long secure, through the awe and 

1 Besides being in a sense museums, the temples of the Greeks were also banks of 
deposit. The priests often loaned out on interest the money deposited with them, the 
revenue from this source being added to that from the leased lands of the temple and 
from the tithes of war booty to meet the expenses of the services of the shrine. 



§188] THE ATHENIAN PARTHENON 121 

reverence which its oracle inspired, it finally suffered repeated 
spoliation. The Phocians, pressed for funds in a war, despoiled 
the temple of a treasure equivalent, it is estimated, to more than 
$10,000,000, and later the Romans seem to have stripped it 
almost bare of its art treasures. 

188. The Athenian Parthenon. We have already glanced at 
the Parthenon, the sanctuary of the virgin goddess Athena, upon 
the Acropolis at Athens (sect. 151). This temple, which is built 
in the Doric order, of marble from the neighboring Pentelicus, is 
regarded as the finest specimen of Greek architecture. The art 
exhibited in its construction is an art of ideal perfection. After 
standing for more than two thousand years, and having served 
successively as a pagan temple, a Christian church, and a Moham- 
medan mosque, it finally was made to serve as a Turkish powder 
magazine in a war with the Venetians in 1687. Unfortunately a 
bomb ignited the magazine, and more than half of the wonderful 
masterpiece was shivered into fragments. Even in its ruined state 
the structure is the most highly prized memorial that we possess 
of the builders of the ancient world. 

189. Olympia and the Temple of Zeus Olympius. The sacred 
plain of the Alpheus in Elis was, as we have learned, the spot 
where were held the celebrated Olympian games. Here was raised 
a magnificent Doric temple consecrated to Zeus Olympius, and 
around it were grouped a vast number of shrines, treasure-houses, 
porticoes, and various other structures. 

For many centuries these buildings adorned the consecrated 
spot and witnessed the recurring festivals. But in the fifth century 
of our era the Christian emperor Theodosius II ordered their 
destruction, as monuments of paganism, and the splendid struc- 
tures were given to the flames. Earthquakes, landslips, and the 
floods of the Alpheus completed in time the work of destruction 
and buried the ruins beneath a thick layer of earth. 

For centuries the desolate spot remained unvisited ; but late 
in the last century the Germans excavated the temple site and 
the sites of about forty other structures. The remains unearthed 
were of such an extensive nature as to make possible a restoration 



122 



GREEK ARCHITECTURE 



[§190 



of the noble assemblage of buildings which we may believe re- 
creates with fidelity the scene looked upon by the visitor to 
Olympia in the days of its architectural glory (Fig. 46). 

190. Theaters and Stadia. The Greek theater was semi- 
circular in form, and open to the sky, as shown in the accom- 
panying cut. The space between the lower range of seats and 
the stage was the orchestra, or dancing-place for the chorus. 




Fig. 47. The Theater of Dionysus at Athens. (From a photograph) 

The most noted of Greek theaters was the Theater of Dionysus 
at Athens, which was the model of all the others. It was cut 
partly in the native rock on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, 
the Greeks in the construction of their theaters generally taking 
advantage of a hillside. The structure probably would seat about 
twenty thousand spectators. 

The Greek stadium, in which foot races and other games 
were held, was a narrow rectangular enclosure between six and 
seven hundred feet in length. In its construction, as in that of 
the theater, advantage was usually taken of a hillside, or of a 
trough between two ridges, the slopes of which gave standing- 
ground for the spectators or, in later times, formed the foundation 
for tiers of wooden or stone seats. There was a stadium at every 
chief place of assemblage in the Greek world. 



§191] 



THE ARCHAIC PERIOD 



123 



m 



'V 






Ji'l.li 



II. SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 

191. The Archaic Period, down to the Persian Wars. Among 
the oldest remains of Greek sculpture are specimens of carvings 
in relief. A good example of this archaic phase 
of Greek sculpture is seen in the tombstone 
of Aristion (Fig. 48), discovered in Attica in 
1838. The date of this work is placed at about 
500 B.C. A sort of Egyptian rigidity still binds 
the limbs of the figure, yet there are sugges- 
tions of the grace and freedom of a truer and 
a higher art. 

192. Influence of the Olympic Games and 
the Gymnasium upon Greek Sculpture. To- 
ward the latter part of the sixth century b.c. 
it became the custom to set up images of the 
victors in the Olympic games. It was probably 
this custom that gave one of the earliest impulses 
to Greek sculpture. The grounds at Olympia 
became crowded with "a band of chosen youth 
in imperishable forms." 

In still another way did the Olympic contests 
and the exercises of the gymnasia exert a most 
helpful influence upon Greek sculpture. They 
afforded the artist unrivaled opportunities for 
the study of the human form. "The whole race," 
as Symonds says, "lived out its sculpture and its 
painting, rehearsed, as it were, the great works 
of Phidias and Polygnotus in physical exercises 
before it learned to express itself in marble or 
in color." 

193. The Period of Perfection of Greek Sculpture ; Phidias. 
Greek sculpture was at its best during the last half of the fifth 
century b.c. 1 The preeminent sculptor of this period of perfection 



Fig. 48. Stele 
of Aristion 

Example of archaic 
Attic sculpture 



1 Almost all the masterpieces of the Greek sculptors have perished ; they are known 
to us for the most part only through Roman copies. 



124 



GREEK SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 



[§ 194 




was Phidias. It was his genius which, as already mentioned, cre- 
ated the marvelous figures of the pediments and of the frieze of 
the Parthenon. 1 

The most celebrated of his colossal sculptures were the statue 
of Athena within the Parthenon and that of Olympian Zeus in the 
temple at Olympia. The statue of Athena was of gigantic size, 

being about forty feet in height, and 
was constructed of ivory and gold, 
the hair, weapons, and drapery being 
of the latter material. The statue of 
Olympian Zeus was also of ivory and 
gold. It was sixty feet high and 
represented the god seated on his 
throne. The colossal proportions of 
this wonderful work, as well as the 
lofty yet benign aspect of the coun- 
tenance, harmonized well with the 
popular conception of the majesty 
and grace of the " father of gods and 
men." It was thought a great mis- 
fortune to die without having seen 
the Olympian Zeus. The statue was 
in existence for eight hundred years. It is believed to have been 
carried to Constantinople and to have perished there in a con- 
flagration in the fifth century of the Christian era. 

194. Praxiteles. Though Greek sculpture attained its highest 
perfection in the fifth century, still the following century produced 
sculptors whose work possessed qualities of rare excellence. The 
most eminent sculptor of this period was Praxiteles (period of 
activity about 360-340 B.C.), of whom it has been said that he 
"rendered into stone the moods of the soul." Among his chief 
pieces was the Hermes, which was set up at Olympia. To the great 

1 The subject of the wonderful frieze was the procession which formed the most 
important feature of an Athenian festival celebrated every four years in honor of the 
patron goddess of Athens. The best part of the frieze is now in the British Museum, 
the Parthenon having been largely despoiled of its coronal of sculptures by Lord Elgin. 
Read Lord Byron's The Curse of Minerva. 



Fig. 49. The Wrestlers 

" Particularly were the games pro- 
motive of sculpture, since they 
afforded the sculptor living models 
for his art " (sect. 103) 



§ 195] 



THE SCHOOL OF RHODES 



125 



joy of archaeologists this precious memorial of antiquity was dis- 
covered in 1877, so that now we possess an undoubtedly original 
work of one of the great masters of Greek sculpture (Fig. 50). 

195. The School of Rhodes. The Graeco-oriental period saw the 
rise at Rhodes, at this time the commercial emporium of the eastern 
Mediterranean, of a cele- 
brated school of sculp- 
ture. Very many of the 
prized works of Greek 
art in our museums were 
executed by members of 
this Rhodian school. 
One of the most noted 
of the Rhodian sculptors 
was Chares, the designer 
of the celebrated Colos- 
sus 0} Rhodes (about 
280 B.C.). This work 
was reckoned as one of 
the seven wonders of 
the world. 1 

But the most remark- 
able piece of sculpture 
(one of the masterpieces 
of Hellenistic art) at- 
tributed to members of the school of Rhodes is the celebrated 
group known as the Laocoon (Fig. 51), found at Rome in 1506. 
196. Painting. With the exception of antique vases, a few 
patches of mural decoration, some interesting portraits, dating 
probably from the second century after Christ, found in graves 
in Lower Egypt, and colored sculpturings, all specimens of Greek 
painting have perished. Not a single work of any great painter 
of antiquity has survived the accidents of time. Consequently 




Fig. 50. Hermes with the Infant 
Dionysus 

An original work of Praxiteles, found in 1877 at 

Olympia. " The only certainly identified original 

work of any famous Greek Artist " 



1 The statue was not quite as large as the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor. 
After standing about half a century, the Colossus was overthrown by an earthquake. 
Nine hundred years later it was broken up and sold for old metal. 



126 



GREEK SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 



[§196 



our knowledge of Greek painting is derived chiefly from the de- 
scription by the ancient writers of renowned works, and their 

anecdotes of great painters. 
Polygnotus (flourished 
475-455 B -c) has been 
called the Prometheus of 
painting, because he was the 
first to give fire and ani- 
mation to the expression of 
the countenance. "In his 
hand," it is affirmed, "the 
human features became for 
the first time the mirror of 
the soul." Of a Polyxena 1 
painted by this great master 
it was said that "she car- 
ried in her eyelids the whole 
history of the Trojan War." 
Apelles, the "Raphael of 
antiquity," was the court 
painter of Alexander the 
Great. He was such a con- 
summate master of the art 
of painting and carried it 
to such a state of perfection 
that the ancient writers 
After him the art declined, 




51. The Laocoon Group . 
(Vatican Museum) 

Found at Rome in 1506. The subject repre- 
sented is the cruel suffering inflicted upon 
Laocoon, a Trojan priest, and his two sons, 
through the agency of terrible serpents sent 
by Athena, whose anger Laocoon had incurred 
(see sEneid, ii, 212-224) 



spoke of it as the "Art of Apelles 

and no other really great name appears. 

References. Hamlin, A. D. F., Text-book of the History of Architecture, 
chaps, vi, vii. Fowler, H. N., and Wheeler, J. R., Greek Archceology. 
Murray, A. S., Handbook of Greek Archceology ; A History of Greek Sculpture, 
2 vols. ; and The Sculptures of the Parthenon. Gardner, E. A., Ancient Athens 
and Handbook of Greek Sculpture. Von Mach, E., Greek Sculpture : its Spirit 
and Principles. Gardner, P., Principles of Greek Art. Tarbell, F. B., A 
History of Greek Art. Harrison, J. E., Introductory Studies in Greek Art. 

1 Polyxena was a daughter of the Trojan Priam, famous for her beauty and 
sufferings. 



CHAPTER XXI 
GREEK LITERATURE 

197. The Greeks as Literary Artists. It was that same ex- 
quisite sense of fitness and proportion and beauty which made the 
Greeks artists in marble that also made them artists in language. 
"Of all the beautiful things which they created," says Professor 
Jebb, "their own language was the most beautiful." This language 
they wrought into epics and lyrics and dramas and histories and 
orations as incomparable in form and beauty as their temples 
and statues. 

198. The Homeric Poems. The most precious literary prod- 
ucts of the spriggtime of Hellas are the so-called Homeric poems, 
— the Iliad and the Odyssey, — wherein are reflected the glories 
of that brilliant ^gean civilization which preceded the historic 
culture of Greece. 

Until the rise of modern German criticism these poems were 
almost universally ascribed to a single bard named Homer, who 
was believed to have lived about the middle of the ninth century 
b.c, one or two centuries after the events commemorated in his 
poems. Tradition represents seven different cities as contending 
for the honor of having been his birthplace. He traveled widely 
(so it was believed), lost his sight, and then as a wandering 
minstrel sang his immortal verses to admiring listeners in the 
different cities of Hellas. 

But it is now the opinion of perhaps the majority of scholars 
that the Iliad and the Odyssey, as they stand today, are not, either 
of them, the creation of a single poet. They are believed to be 
the work of many bards. The "Wrath of Achilles," however, 
which forms the nucleus of the Iliad, may, with very great proba- 
bility, be ascribed to Homer, whom we may believe to have been 
the most prominent of a brotherhood of bards who flourished about 

127 



128 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[§ 199 



the ninth and eighth centuries before the Christian era. The 
Odyssey is probably at least a century later than the Iliad. 
199. Hesiod. Hesiod, who is believed to have lived toward 
the close of the eighth century B.C., was the poet of nature and of 
peasant life in the dim transition age of Hellas. The Homeric 

bards sang of the deeds of 
heroes and of a far-away 
time when gods mingled 
with men. Hesiod sings of 
common men and of every- 
day, present duties. His 
greatest poem is Works 
and Days. This is in the 
main a sort of farmer's 
calendar, with minute in- 
structions respecting farm 
labor, and beautiful de- 
scriptive passages of the 
changing seasons. 

200. Lyric Poetry. The 
island of Lesbos was the 
hearth and home of sev- 
eral of the earlier lyric 
poets. Among these sing- 
ers was Sappho (about 
610-570 b.c), who was 
exalted by the Greeks to 
a place next to Homer. 
Plato calls her the Tenth Muse. Although her fame endures, her 
poetry, excepting a few precious verses, has long since perished. 
Anacreon (period of poetical activity about 550-500 b.c.) was 
a courtier at the time of the Greek tyrannies. 

But the greatest of the Greek lyric poets, and perhaps the 
greatest of all lyric poets of every age and race, was Pindar (522- 
448 b.c). He was born at Thebes, but spent most of his time 
in the cities of Magna Grsecia. The greater number of Pindar's 




Fig. 52. Homer 

Ideal portrait of the Hellenistic Age 



§201] 



ORIGIN OF THE GREEK DRAMA 



129 



poems were inspired by the scenes of the national festivals. They 
describe in lofty strains the splendors of the Olympian chariot 
races, or the glory of the victors at the Isthmian, the Nemean, 
or the Pythian games. 

201. Origin of the Greek Drama. The Greek drama, in both 
its branches of tragedy and comedy, grew out of the songs and 
dances instituted in honor of the god of wine, Dionysus. Tragedy 
(goat song, possibly from the accompanying sacrifice of a goat) 
sprang from the graver songs, and comedy (village song) from the 




Fig 53. Hoeing and Ploughing. (From a vase painting of the sixth 

century B.C.) 

Pray to Zeus . . . when thou beginnest thy labor, as soon as, putting thy hand to the 

plough, thou touchest the back of the oxen that draw at the oaken beam. Just behind 

thee, let a servant, equipped with a mattock, raise trouble for the birds by covering the 

seed. — Hesiod, Works and Days, vv. 465-471 (Croiset's trans.) 



lighter and more farcical ones. Gradually recital and dialogue 
were added, there being at first but a single speaker, then two, 
and finally three, which last was the classical number. 

Owing to its origin, the Greek drama always retained a religious 
character and, further, presented two distinct features, the chorus 
(the songs and dances) and the dialogue. At first the chorus was 
the all-important part ; but later the dialogue became the more 
prominent portion, the chorus, however, always remaining an essen- 
tial feature of the performance. Finally, in the golden age of the 
Attic stage, the chorus dancers and singers were carefully trained at 
great expense, and the dialogue and choral odes were the master- 
piece of some great poet, — and then the Greek drama, the most 
splendid creation of human genius, was complete. 

202. The Three Great Tragic Poets. There are three great 
names in Greek tragedy, — TEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. 



130 GREEK LITERATURE [§ 202 

These dramatists all wrote during the splendid period which fol- 
lowed the victories of the Persian Wars. They drew the material 
of their plays chiefly from the myths and legends of the heroic 
age, just as Shakespeare for many of his plays used the legends of 
the semi-historical periods of his own country or of other lands. 
Of the two hundred and more dramas produced by these poets, 
only thirty-two have escaped the accidents of time. 

^Eschylus (525-456 b.c.) knew how to touch the hearts of the 
generation that had won the victories of the Persian Wars, for 
he had fought at Marathon and probably also at Salamis. The 
Athenians called him the Father of Tragedy. The central idea 
of his dramas is that "Zeus tames excessive lifting up of heart." 
Prometheus Bound is one of his chief works. Another of his great 
tragedies is Agamemnon, thought by some to be his masterpiece. 
The theme of his The Persians was the defeat of Xerxes and his 
host, which afforded the poet a good opportunity "to state his 
philosophy of Nemesis, here being a splendid tragic instance of 
pride humbled, of greatness brought to nothing, through one man's 
impiety and pride." 

Sophocles (about 496-405 b.c.) while yet a youth gained the 
prize in a poetic contest with .ZEschylus. Plutarch says that 
iEschylus was so chagrined by his defeat that he left Athens and 
retired to Sicily. Sophocles now became the leader of tragedy 
at Athens. His dramas were perfect works of art. 1 The central 
idea of his pieces is the same as that which characterizes those 
of ;£schylus, namely, that self-will and insolent pride arouse the 
righteous indignation of the gods, and that no mortal can contend 
successfully against the will of Zeus. 

Euripides (480-406 b.c.) was a more popular dramatist than 
either ^Eschylus or Sophocles. His fame passed far beyond the 
limits of Greece. Plutarch says that the Sicilians were so fond 
of his lines that many of the Athenian prisoners, taken before 
Syracuse, bought their liberty by teaching their masters his verses. 

1 The chief works of Sophocles are CEdipus Tyr atoms, CEdipus Colojieus, and 
Antigone, all of which are founded upon the old tales of the prehistoric royal line 
of Thebes. 



§203] COMEDY; ARISTOPHANES 131 

203. Comedy ; Aristophanes. Foremost among all writers of 
comedy must be placed Aristophanes (about 450-385 B.C.). For 
a generation his inimitable humor furnished the Athenians with 
a chief part of their entertainment in the theater. 1 He even made 
the Athenians laugh at themselves as he held up to mirth-provoking 
ridicule their mania for everything new, and made fun of their 
proceedings in the Ecclesia, their fondness for sitting daylong in 
their great law courts, and their way of doing things in general. 

204. The Three Great Historians. Poetry is the first form 
of literary expression among all peoples. So we must not be sur- 
prised to find that it was not until two centuries or more after the 
composition of the Homeric poems, that is, about the sixth cen- 
tury b.c, that prose writing appeared among the Greeks. Histori- 
cal composition was then first cultivated. We can speak briefly of 
only three historians — Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon — 
whose names were cherished among the ancients, and whose 
writings are highly valued by ourselves. 

Herodotus (about 484-425 b.c), born at Halicarnassus, in 
Asia Minor, is called the Father of History. He traveled over 
much of the then-known world, visiting Italy, Egypt, and Baby- 
lonia, and described as an eyewitness, with a never-failing vivacity 
and freshness, the wonders of the different lands he had seen. 
Herodotus lived in a story-telling age, and he is himself an inimi- 
table story-teller. To him we are indebted for a large part of the 
picturesque tales of antiquity, — tales of men and happenings of 
which the world will never tire. He was overcredulous, and was 
often imposed upon by his guides in Egypt and at Babylon ; but 
he describes with great care and accuracy what he himself saw. 
The central theme of his great history is the Persian Wars, the 
struggle between Asia and Greece. 

Thucydides (about 471-400 b.c), though not so popular an 
historian as Herodotus, was a much more philosophical writer. 
He held a command during the earlier years of the Peloponnesian 
War, but having incurred the displeasure of the Athenians he was 
sent into the exile which afforded him leisure to compose his 

1 H is best-known plays are the Knights, the Clouds, the Wasps, the Birds, and the Frogs. 



132 



GREEK LITERATURE 



[§205 




history of that great struggle. Thucydides died before his task was 
completed. His work is considered a model of historical writing. 
Demosthenes read and reread his writings to improve his own 
style ; and the greatest orators and historians of modern times 
have been equally diligent students of the work of the great 
Athenian. 

Xenophon (about 445-355 b.c.) was an Athenian, and is known 
both as a general and as a writer. The works that render his name 

so familiar are his Anabasis, a simple 
yet thrilling narrative of the expedition 
of the Ten Thousand Greeks (sect. 162), 
and his Memorabilia, or " Recollections " 
of Socrates. 

205. Oratory ; Demosthenes. The 
art of oratory among the Greeks was 
fostered and developed by the generally 
democratic character of their institu- 
tions. The public assemblies of the 
democratic cities were great debating 
clubs, open to all. The gift of eloquence 
secured for its possessor a sure preemi- 
nence. The great jury courts of Athens (sect. 150) were also 
schools of oratory ; for every citizen there was obliged to be his 
own advocate and to defend his own case. 

It has been the fortune of Demosthenes (385-322 b.c.) to have 
his name become throughout the world the synonym of eloquence. 
The labors and struggles by which, according to tradition, he 
achieved excellence in his art are held up anew to each generation 
of youth as guides to the path to success. Respecting the ora- 
tions of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon we have already 
spoken (sect. 168). 

206. The Alexandrian Age (300-146 B.C.). Under the Ptole- 
mies Alexandria in Egypt became the center of literary activity, 
hence the term Alexandrian, applied to the literature of the 
age. The great Museum and Library of the Ptolemies afforded in 
that capital such facilities for students and authors as existed in 



Fig. 54. Thucydides 
(National Museum, Naples) 



§207] GR^CO-ROMAN WRITERS 133 

no other city in the world. But the creative age of Greek litera- 
ture was over. The writers of the period were commentators and 
translators. One of the most important literary undertakings of 
the age was the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures of the Old 
Testament into Greek. From the traditional number of transla- 
tors (seventy) the version is known as the Septuagint. 

Among the poets of the period one name, and only one, stands 
out clear and preeminent. This is that of Theocritus, a Sicilian 
poet, who wrote at Alexandria under Ptolemy Philadelphus. His 
rustic idyls are charming pictures of Sicilian pastoral life. 

207. Conclusion : Graeco-Roman Writers. After the Roman 
conquest of Greece, the center of Greek literary activity shifted 
from Alexandria to Rome. Hence Greek literature now passes 
into what is known as its Graeco-Roman period (146B.C.-A.D. 527). 

The most noted historical writer of the first part of this period 
was Polybius (d. 121 B.C.), who wrote a history of the Roman 
conquests from 264 to 146 b.c. His work, though it has reached 
us in a sadly mutilated state, is of great worth ; for Polybius wrote 
of matters that had become history in his own day. He had lived 
to see the greater part of the world he knew absorbed by the 
ever-growing dominions of the city of Rome. 

Plutarch (b. about a.d. 40), "the prince of biographers," will 
always live in literature as the author of the Parallel Lives, in 
which, with great wealth of illustrative anecdotes, he compares or 
contrasts Greek and Roman statesmen and soldiers. One motive 
that led Plutarch to write the book, as we may infer from the 
partiality which he displays for his Greek heroes, was a desire 
to let the world know that Hellas had once bred men the peers 
of the best men that Rome had ever brought forth ; another was 
"through the example of great men to teach men to live well." 
And this last end he attained, for his work has been and is a 
great force in the moral education of the world. 

References. Croiset, A. and M., An Abridged History of Greek Literature. 
Wright, W. C, A Short History of Greek Literature. Mahaffy, J. P., History 
of Classical Greek Literature, 2 vols. Jevons, F. B., History of Greek Litera- 
ture. Murray, G. G. A., History of Ancient Greek History. 



CHAPTER XXII 
GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE 

208. The Seven Sages: the Forerunners. About 600 b.c. 
there lived in different parts of Hellas many persons of real or 
reputed originality and wisdom. Among these were seven men, 
called the Seven Sages, who held the place of preeminence. 1 To 
them belongs the distinction of having first aroused the Greek 
intellect to philosophical thought. The wise sayings — such as 
"Know thyself," "Nothing in excess," — attributed to them are 
beyond number. 

While the maxims and proverbs ascribed to the sages, like the 
so-called proverbs of Solomon, contain a vast amount of practical 
wisdom, they do not constitute philosophy proper, which is a sys- 
tematic search for the reason and causes of things. They form 
simply the introduction or prelude to Greek philosophy. 

209. The Ionic Philosophers ; Thales. The first Greek school 
of philosophy grew up in the cities of Ionia, in Asia Minor, where 
almost all forms of Hellenic culture seem to have had their be- 
ginnings. The founder of the school was Thales of Miletus (born 
about 640 b.c), the Father of Greek Philosophy. 

Thales visited Egypt, and it is probable that what he learned 
there formed the basis of his work in geometry and astronomy. 
He is said to have taught the Egyptians how to measure the height 
of the pyramids by means of their shadows. He is also credited 
with having foretold an eclipse of the sun — a very great scien- 
tific achievement. 

210. Pythagoras. Pythagoras (about 580-500 b.c.) was born 
on the island of Samos, whence his title of the "Samian Sage." 

1 As in the case of the seven wonders of the world, ancient writers were not always 
agreed as to what names should be accorded the honor of enrollment in the sacred 
number. Thales, Solon, Periander, Cleobulus, Chilo, Bias, and Pittacus are, however, 
usually reckoned as the Seven Wise Men. 

134 



§211] ANAXAGORAS 135 

The most of his later years were passed at Croton, in southern 
Italy, where he became the founder of a celebrated brotherhood, or 
association. Legend tells how his pupils in debate used no other 
argument than the words Ipse dixit ("he himself said so"). It is 
to Pythagoras, according to the legend, that we are indebted 
for the word philosopher. Being asked of what he was master, 
he replied that he was simply a "philosopher," that is, a "lover 
of wisdom." 

In astronomy the Pythagoreans held views which anticipated by 
two thousand years those of Copernicus. They taught that the 
earth is a sphere, and that it, together with the other planets, 
revolves about a central globe of fire, " the hearth, or altar, of the 
universe." 

211. Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras (about 500-427 b.c.) was the 
first Greek philosopher who made Mind, instead of necessity or 
chance, the arranging and harmonizing force of the universe. 
"Reason rules the world" was his first maxim. In the views he 
held of the universe in general Anaxagoras was far in advance of 
his age. He taught that the sun was not a god, but a glowing 
rock, as large, probably as the Peloponnesus. He suffered the fate 
of Galileo in a later age ; he was charged with impiety and exiled. 
Yet this did not disturb the serenity of his mind. In banishment 
he said, "It is not I who have lost the Athenians, but the Athe- 
nians who have lost me." 

212. The Sophists. The Sophists were a class of philosophers 
or teachers who gave instruction in rhetoric and the art of dispu- 
tation. They traveled about from city to city, and contrary to 
the custom of the Greek philosophers took fees from their pupils. 
They were in general teachers of superficial knowledge, who cared 
more for the dress in which the thought was arrayed than for the 
thought itself. The better philosophers of the time despised them, 
and applied to them many harsh epithets, taunting them with 
selling wisdom and accusing them of boasting that they could 
"make the worse appear the better reason." But there were 
those among the Sophists who taught a true philosophy of life and 
whose good influence was great and lasting. 



136 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE 



[§213 



213. Socrates. Volumes would not contain all that would 
be both instructive and interesting respecting the teachings and 
speculations of the three great philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and 
Aristotle. We can, however, accord to each only a few words. 
Of these three eminent thinkers, Socrates (469-399 b.c.) has the 
firmest hold upon the affections of the world. 

Nature, while generous to Socrates in the gifts of soul, was un- 
kind to him in the matter of his person. His face was ugly as a 
satyr's so that he invited the shafts of the 
comic poets of his time. He loved to gather 
a little circle about him in the Agora or in 
the streets, and then draw out his listeners 
by a series of ingenious questions. His 
method was so peculiar to himself that it 
has received the designation of the " Socra- 
tic dialogue." He has very happily been 
called an educator, as opposed to an instruc- 
tor. Among the young men of his time 
Socrates found many devoted pupils. 

This great philosopher believed that the 
proper study of mankind is man, his favo- 
rite maxim being" Know thyself." He taught 
one of the purest systems of morals that 
the world had yet known, one which has been surpassed only by 
the precepts of the Great Teacher. He believed in the immortality 
of the soul and in a Supreme Ruler of the universe. Of his prose- 
cution and condemnation to death on the charge of impiety, and 
of his last hours with his devoted disciples, we have already spoken 
(sect. 163). 

214. Plato. Plato (427-347 b.c), "the broad-browed," was 
a philosopher of noble birth, before whom in youth opened a 
brilliant career in the world of Greek affairs ; but, coming under 
the influence of Socrates, he resolved to give up all his prospects 
in politics and devote himself to philosophy. Upon the condem- 
nation and death of his master he went into voluntary exile. He 
finally returned to Athens and established a school of philosophy 




Fig. 55. Socrates 

(National Museum, 

Naples) 



§ 215] ARISTOTLE 137 

in the Academy. Here, amid the disciples that thronged to his 
lectures, he passed the greater part of his long life laboring inces- 
santly upon the great works that bear his name. 

Plato imitated in his writings Socrates' method in conversation. 
The discourse is carried on by questions and answers, hence the 
term Dialogues that attaches to his works. He attributes to his 
master, Socrates, much of the philosophy that he teaches ; yet his 
writings are all deeply tinged with his own genius and thought. 
In the Republic Plato portrays his conception of an ideal state. 
The Phcedo is a record of the last conversation of Socrates with 
his disciples, — an immortal argument for the immortality of the 
soul. 

Plato believed not only in a future life (postexistence) but 
also in preexistence ; teaching that the ideas of reason, or our 
intuitions, are reminiscences of a past experience. 1 Plato's doc- 
trines have exerted a profound influence upon all schools of 
thought and philosophies since his day. In some of his precepts 
he made a close approach to the teachings of Christianity. "We 
ought to become like God," he said, "as far as this is possible ; and 
to become like him is to become holy and just and wise." 

215. Aristotle. As Socrates was surpassed by his pupil Plato, 
so in turn was Plato excelled by his disciple Aristotle (384- 
322 B.C.), "the master of those who know." In him the; philo- 
sophical genius of the Hellenic intellect reached its culmination. 
It may be doubted whether all the ages since his time have pro- 
duced so profound and powerful an intellect as his. He was born 
in the Macedonian city of Stagira, and hence is frequently called 
"the Stagirite." 

After studying for twenty years in the school of Plato, Aristotle 
accepted the invitation of Philip II of Macedon to become the 
preceptor of his son, the young prince Alexander (sect. 170). In 

1 In the following lines from Wordsworth we catch a glimpse of Plato's doctrine 
of preexistence : 

Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting ; Not in entire forgetfulness, 

The soul that rises with us, our life's star, And not in utter nakedness, 

Hath had elsewhere its setting, But trailing clouds of glory, do we come 

And cometh from afar : From God, who is our home. 

Ode on /»i mortality 



i3» 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE 



[§216 



after years Alexander became the liberal patron of his tutor, and, 
besides giving him large sums of money, encouraged and aided 
him in his scientific studies by causing to be sent to him collections 
of plants and animals gathered on his distant expeditions. 

Among the productions of Aristotle are works on the natural 
history of animals, on rhetoric, logic, poetry, morals, politics, 

and physics. For centuries his 
works were studied and copied and 
commented upon by both European 
and Asiatic scholars, in the schools 
of Athens and Rome, of Alexan- 
dria and Constantinople. Until the 
time of Bacon in England, for nearly 
two thousand years, Aristotle ruled 
over the realm of mind with a des- 
potic sway. All teachers and phi- 
losophers acknowledged him as their 
guide and master. 

216. Zeno and the Stoics. We 
are now approaching the period 
when the political life of Hellas was 
failing, and was being fast over- 
shadowed by the greatness of Rome. 
But the intellectual life of the Greek 
race was by no means eclipsed by 
the calamity that ended its political existence. For centuries 
after that event the poets, scholars, and philosophers of this 
highly gifted people led a brilliant career in the schools and uni- 
versities of the Mediterranean world. From among all the phi- 
losophers of this long period we select for brief mention only two, 
Zeno and Epicurus, who are noted as founders of schools of 
philosophy that exerted a vast influence upon both the thought 
and the conduct of many centuries. 

Zeno, the founder of the celebrated school of the Stoics, lived 
in the third century before our era (about 340-265 B.C.). He 
taught at Athens in a public porch (in Greek, stoa), from which 




Fig. 56. Aristotle. (Spada 
Palace, Rome) 



§ 217] EPICURUS AND THE EPICUREANS 139 

circumstance comes the name applied to his disciples. 1 The Stoics 
inculcated virtue for its own sake. They believed — and it would 
be difficult to frame a better creed — that "man's chief business 
here is to do his duty." They schooled themselves to bear with 
composure any lot that destiny might appoint. Any sign of 
emotion on account of calamity was considered unmanly. Thus 
a certain Stoic, when told of the sudden death of his son, is said 
merely to have remarked, "Well, I never imagined that I had 
given life to an immortal." 

This Stoic code did not become a really important factor in the 
moral life of the ancient world until after its adoption by the finer 
spirits among the Romans. It never influenced the masses, but 
for several centuries it gave moral support and guidance to many 
of the best men of the Roman race, among whom were several 
emperors. In truth, Stoicism was one of the most helpful ele- 
ments in the rich legacy which Hellas transmitted to Rome. 

217. Epicurus and the Epicureans. In opposition to the Stoics, 
Epicurus (341-270 b.c.) taught that pleasure is the highest 
good. He recommended virtue, indeed, but only as a means for 
the attainment of pleasure ; whereas the Stoics made virtue an 
end in itself. In other words, Epicurus said, " Be virtuous, because 
virtue will bring you the greatest amount of happiness"; Zeno 
said, "Be virtuous, because you ought to be." 

Epicurus had many followers in Greece, and his doctrines were 
eagerly embraced by many among the Romans during the later 
corrupt period of the Empire. Many of these disciples carried the 
doctrines of their master to an excess that he himself would have 
been the first to condemn. Their whole philosophy was expressed 
in the proverb, "Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die." 

218. Mathematics ; Euclid and Archimedes. Alexandria, in 
Egypt, became the seat of the most celebrated school of mathe- 
matics of antiquity. Here, under Ptolemy Soter, flourished Euclid, 
the great geometer, whose work forms the basis of the science of 

1 The Stoical philosophy was the outgrowth, in part at least, of that of the Cynics. 
The typical representative of this sect is found in Diogenes, who lived, so the story 
goes, in a wine cask and went about Athens by daylight with a lantern, in search, 
as he said, of a man. The Cynics were simply a race of pagan hermits. 



140 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE [§ 219 

geometry as taught in our schools today. Ptolemy himself was 
his pupil. The royal student, however, seems to have disliked the 
severe application required to master the problems of Euclid, and 
asked his teacher if there was not some easier way. Euclid replied, 
"There is no royal road to geometry." In the third century B.C., 
Syracuse, in Sicily, was the home of Archimedes, the greatest 
mathematician that the Grecian world produced. 

219. Astronomy and Geography. Among ancient Greek 
astronomers and geographers the names of Aristarchus and Clau- 
dius Ptolemy are best known. Aristarchus of Samos, who lived 
in the third century B.C., held that the earth revolves about the 
sun as a fixed center, and rotates on its own axis. He was the 
Greek Copernicus. But his theory was rejected by his contem- 
poraries and successors. 

Claudius Ptolemy lived in Egypt about the middle of the second 
century after Christ. He compiled a vast work which preserved 
and transmitted to later times almost all the knowledge of the 
ancient world on astronomical and geographical subjects. In this 
way it has happened that his name has become attached to vari- 
ous doctrines and views respecting the universe, though these 
probably were not originated by him. The phrase "Ptolemaic 
System," however, links his name inseparably, whether the honor 
be fairly his or not, with that conception of the solar system set 
forth in his works, which continued to be the received theory from 
his time until Copernicus, fourteen centuries later. 

Ptolemy combated the theory of Aristarchus in regard to the 
rotation and revolution of the earth ; yet he believed the earth 
to be a globe, and supported this view by exactly the same 
arguments that we today use to prove the doctrine. 

References. Grote, G. (ten-volume ed.), vol. iv, pp. 65-94 (Ionic philoso- 
phers and Pythagoras) ; vol. vii, pp. 32-172 (the Sophists and Socrates). Burt, 
B. C, A Brief History of Greek Philosophy. Mayor, J. B., Sketch of Ancient 
Philosophy. Davidson, T., The Education of the Greek People, chap, v (on the 
teachings of Socrates). Leonard, W. E., Socrates: Master of Life. Zeller, 
E., The Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. All these works, except Leonard's 
Socrates, are for the teacher and the advanced student. 



CHAPTER XXIII 




SOCIAL LIFE OF THE GREEKS 

220. Education. Education at Sparta, where it was chiefly 
gymnastic, as we have seen, was a state affair ; but at Athens and 
throughout Greece generally, the youth were trained in private 
schools. These were 
of all grades, rang- 
ing from those kept 
by the most obscure 
teachers, who gath- 
ered their pupils in 
some recess of the 
street, to those es- 
tablished in the 
Athenian Academy 
and the Lyceum by 
such philosophers as 
Plato and Aristotle. 

It was only the 
boys who received 
education. In the 
nursery the boy was taught the beautiful myths and stories 
of the national mythology and religion. 1 At about seven he 
entered school, being led to and from the place of training 

1 Infanticide was almost universally practiced throughout Greece. (At Thebes, 
however, the exposure of children was prohibited by severe laws.) Such philosophers 
as Plato and Aristotle saw nothing in the custom to condemn. Among the Spartans, as 
we have already learned, the state determined what infants might be preserved, con- 
demning the weakly or ill-formed to be cast out to die. At Athens and in other states 
the right to expose his child was given to the father. The infant was abandoned in some 
desert place, or left in some frequented spot in the hope that it might be picked rp and 
cared for. Greek literature, like that of every other people of antiquity, is filled with 
stories and dramas all turning upon points afforded by this common practice. 

141 



Fig. 57. A Greek School. (From a vase paint- 
ing of the fifth century B.C.) 

The master on the left is teaching the boy seated in front 
of him to play the lyre ; the master in the center of the 
picture is giving instruction in reading or in recitation to 
the boy standing before him. The man seated and lean- 
ing on a staff is probably the pedagogue who has brought 
the boys to the school 



142 



SOCIAL LIFE OF THE GREEKS 



[§220 



by an old slave, who bore the name of pedagogue, which in 
Greek means a guide or leader of boys, not a teacher. His 
studies were grammar, music and gymnastics, the aim of the 
course being to secure a symmetrical development of mind 
and body alike. 

Grammar included reading, writing, and arithmetic; music, 
which embraced a wide range of mental accomplishments, trained 
the boy to appreciate the masterpieces of 
the great poets, to contribute his part 
to the musical diversions of private enter- 
tainments, and to join in the sacred cho- 
ruses and in the paean of the battlefield. 
The exercises of the palestrae and the gym- 
nasia trained him for the Olympic contests, 
or for those sterner hand-to-hand battle 
struggles in which so much depended upon 
personal strength and dexterity. 

Upon reaching maturity the youth was 
enrolled in the list of citizens. But his 
graduation from school was his " com- 
mencement" in a much more real sense 
than with the average modern graduate. 
Never was there a people besides the 
Greeks whose daily life was so emphati- 
cally a discipline in liberal culture. The 
schools of the philosophers, the debates 
of the popular assembly, the practice of the law courts, the 
masterpieces of a divine art, the religious processions, the Pan- 
hellenic games, — all these were splendid educational agencies, 
which produced and maintained a standard of average intelli- 
gence and culture among the citizens of the Greek cities that 
probably has never been attained among any other people on 
the earth. Freeman, quoted approvingly by Mahaffy, says 
that "the average intelligence of the assembled Athenian citi- 
zens was higher than that of our [the English] House of 
Commons." 




Fig. 58. Pedagogue 
and Children. (Terra- 
cotta group from Tana- 
gra; Louvre, Paris) 



§221] THEATRICAL ENTERTAINMENTS 143 

221. Social Position of Woman. Although there are in Greek 
literature some exquisitely beautiful portraitures of ideal woman- 
hood, still the general tone of the literature betrays a deep con- 
tempt for woman. Thucydides quotes with seeming approval the 
Greek proverb, "That woman is best who is least spoken of 
among men, whether for good or for evil." 

This unworthy conception of woman of course consigned her 
to a narrow and inferior place in the Greek home. Her position 
may be defined as being about halfway between oriental seclu- 
sion and modern or Western freedom. Her main duties were to 
cook and spin, and to oversee the domestic slaves, of whom she 
herself was practically one. In the fashionable society of Ionian 
cities she was seldom allowed to appear in public, or to meet, 
even in her own house, the male friends of her husband. In 
Sparta, however, and in Dorian states generally, she was accorded 
much more freedom, and was a really important factor in society. 

222. Theatrical Entertainments. Among the ancient Greeks 
the theater was a state establishment, (< a part of the constitution." 
This arose from the religious origin and character of the drama 
(sect. 201), all matters pertaining to the popular worship being 
the care and concern of the state. Theatrical performances, being 
religious acts, were presented only during religious festivals, — 
certain festivals observed in honor of Dionysus, — and were at- 
tended by all classes, rich and poor, men, women, and children. 
The women, however, were, it would seem, permitted to witness 
tragedies only ; the comic stage was too gross to allow of their 
presence. The spectators sat under the open sky ; and the pieces 
followed one after the other in close succession from early morning 
till nightfall. 

While the better class of actors were highly honored, ordinary 
players were held in very low esteem, in which matter the Greek 
stage presents a parallel to that of England in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. And as in the Elizabethan age the writers of plays were 
frequently also the performers, so in Greece, particularly during 
the early period of the drama, the author often became an actor — 
iEschylus and Sophocles both assumed this role — and assisted 



144 



SOCIAL LIFE OF THE GREEKS 



[§223 



in the presentation of his own pieces. Still another parallel is 
found in the fact that the female parts in the Greek dramas, as 
in the early English theater, were taken by men. 

The theater exerted a great influence upon Greek life. It per- 
formed for ancient Greek society somewhat the same service as 
that rendered to modern society by the pulpit and the press. 
During the best days of Hellas the frequent rehearsal upon the 
stage of the chief incidents in the lives of the gods and heroes 
served to deepen and strengthen the religious faith of the people; 

and, in later times, 
when with Mace- 
donian supremacy 
the days of de- 
cline came, the stage 
was one of the 
chief agents in the 
diffusion of Greek 
thought and literary 
culture throughout 
the Hellenistic world 
of the East. 
223. Banquets and Symposia. Banquets and drinking parties 
among the Greeks possessed some features which set them apart 
from similar entertainments among other people. The banquet 
proper was partaken, in later times, by the guests in a reclining 
position, upon couches or divans arranged about the table in the 
oriental manner. After the usual courses a libation was poured out 
and a hymn sung in honor of the gods, and then followed that 
characteristic part of the entertainment known as the " symposium." 
The symposium was "the intellectual side of the feast." It con- 
sisted of general conversation, riddles, and convivial songs rendered 
to the accompaniment of the lyre passed from hand to hand. 
Generally professional singers and musicians, dancing girls, jugglers, 
and jesters were called in to contribute to the merrymaking. The 
symposium must at times, when the conversation was sustained by 
such persons as Socrates and Aristophanes, have been "a feast 




Fig. 59. A Banquet Scene 



§ 224] SLAVERY 145 

of reason and a flow of soul" indeed. Xenophon in his Banquet 
and Plato in his Symposium have each left us a striking report of 
such an entertainment. 

224. Slavery. There is a dark side to Greek life. Hellenic art, 
culture, refinement, — " these good things were planted, like ex- 
quisite exotic flowers, upon the black, rank soil of slavery." 

Slaves were very numerous in Greece. No exact estimate can 
be made of their number. Almost every freeman was a slave owner. 
It was accounted a real hardship to have to get along with less 
than half a dozen slaves. The slave class was formed in various 
ways. In the prehistoric period the fortunes of war had brought 
the entire population of whole provinces into a servile condition, 
as in certain parts of the Peloponnesus. During later times the 
ordinary captives of war still further augmented the ranks of these 
unfortunates. Their number was also largely added to by the 
slave traffic carried on with the barbarian peoples of Asia. Crim- 
inals and debtors, too, were often condemned to servitude ; while 
foundlings were usually brought up as slaves. 

The relation of master and slave was regarded by the ordinary 
Greek as a perfectly natural one. Barbarians in his view were 
slaves by nature ; that is, their inferiority in soul was such that 
it was manifest nature intended them to be slaves, just as she 
intended domestic animals to be the servants of man. 

In general, Greek slaves were not treated harshly, judging their 
treatment by the standard of humanity that prevailed in antiquity. 
Some held places of honor in the family, and enjoyed the confi- 
dence and even the friendship of their master. 

References. Blumner, H., The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. Davidson, 
T., The Education of the Greek People and Ancient Educational Ideals. Walden, 
J. W. H., The Universities of Ancient Greece. Mahaffy, J. B., Social Life in 
Greece ; Old Greek Education ; Greek Life and Thought (selected chapters) ; and 
Old Greek Life. Felton, C. C, Greece, Ancient and Modern, vol. i, pp. 271-51 1 
(pictures various aspects of the life of Greece). Guhl, E., and Koner, W., 
Life of the Greeks and the Romans (first part). Gulick, C. B., Life of the Ancietit 
Greeks. Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens. 



DIVISION III. ROME 

CHAPTER XXIV 
ITALY AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS 

225. Divisions of the Italian Peninsula. The Italian peninsula 
is generally conceived as consisting of three sections — Northern, 
Central, and Southern Italy. The first comprises the great basin of 
the river Po (Padus), lying between the Alps and the Apennines. 
In ancient times this part of Italy included three districts, namely, 
Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina, and Venetia. Liguria embraced the 
southwestern and Venetia the northeastern part of Northern 
Italy. Gallia Cisalpina lay between these two districts, occupy- 
ing the finest portion of the valley of the Po. It received its 
name, which means " Gaul on this [the Italian] side of the Alps," 
from the Gallic tribes that about the fifth century before our 
era found their way over the mountains and settled upon these 
rich lands. 

The countries of Central Italy were Etruria, Latium, and Cam- 
pania, facing the Western, or Tyrrhenian, Sea ; Umbria and 
Picenum, looking out over the Eastern, or Adriatic, Sea ; and 
Samnium and the country of the Sabines, occupying the rough 
mountain districts of the Apennines. 

Southern Italy comprised the ancient districts of Apulia, Lucania, 
Calabria, and Bruttium. Calabria 1 formed the "heel," and Brut- 
tium the "toe," of the bootlike peninsula. The coast region of 
Southern Italy, as we have already learned, was called Magna 
Grsecia, or "Great Greece," on account of the number and im- 
portance of the Greek cities that during the period of Hellenic 
supremacy were established on these shores. 

1 During the Middle Ages this name was transferred to the toe of the peninsula, 
and this forms the Calabria of today. 

146 



§226] GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES 147 

The large island of Sicily, lying just off the mainland on the 
south, may be regarded simply as a detached fragment of Italy, 
so intimately has its history been connected with that of the 
peninsula. 

226. Mountains, Rivers, and Harbors. Italy, like the other 
two peninsulas of southern Europe, — Greece and Spain, — has a 
high mountain barrier, the Alps, along its northern frontier. Cor- 
responding to the Pindus range in Greece, the Apennines run as 
a great central ridge through the peninsula. Eastward of the 
ancient Latium they spread out into broad uplands, which in early 
times nourished a race of hardy mountaineers, who incessantly 
harried the territories of the more civilized lowlanders of Latium 
and Campania. Thus the physical conformation of this part of 
the peninsula shaped large sections of Roman history, just as 
in the case of Scotland the physical contrast between the north 
and the south was reflected for centuries in the antagonisms of 
Highlanders and Lowlanders. 

Italy has only one really great river, the Po, which drains the 
large northern plain, already mentioned, lying between the Alps 
and the Apennines. The streams running down the eastern slope 
of the Apennines are short and of little volume. Among the rivers 
draining the western slopes of the Apennines, the one of greatest 
historic interest is the Tiber, on the banks of which Rome arose. 

The finest Italian harbors, of which that of Naples is the most 
celebrated, are on the western coast. The eastern coast is precipi- 
tous, with few good havens. Italy thus faces the west. What 
makes it important for us to notice this circumstance is the fact 
that Greece faces the east, and that thus these two peninsulas, as 
the historian Mommsen expresses it, turn their backs to each other. 
This brought it about that Rome and the cities of Greece had 
almost no dealings with one another for many centuries. 

227. Early Inhabitants of Italy : the Etruscans, the Greeks, 
and the Italians. There were in early historic times three chief 
races in Italy — the Etruscans, the Greeks, and the Italians. The 
Etruscans and the Italians had found their way into the peninsula 
in prehistoric times ; the Greeks had come later. 



148 



ITALY AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS [§ 227 



The Etruscans, a wealthy and cultured seafaring people of 
uncertain race and origin, dwelt in Etruria, now called Tuscany 
after them. 1 They seem to have come into Italy from the east 
by way of the sea. Before the rise of the Roman people they 
were the leading race in the peninsula. Certain elements in their 

culture lead us to believe that 
they had learned much from the 
cities of Magna Graecia. The . 
Etruscans in their turn became 
the teachers of the early Romans 
and imparted to them certain 
elements of civilization, includ- 
ing military usages, hints in the 
art of building, and various re- 
ligious ideas and rites. 

With the Greek cities in South- 
ern Italy and in Sicily we have 
already formed an acquaintance. 
Through themedium of these cul- 
tured communities the Romans 
were taught the use of letters 
and given valuable suggestions 
in matters of law and constitu- 
tional government. 
The Italians, peoples of Indo-European speech, embraced many 
tribes or communities (Latins, Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, etc.) 
that occupied nearly all Central and a considerable part of South- 
ern Italy. 3 They were kin to the Greeks and brought with them 
into the peninsula, where they probably mixed with an aboriginal 
population, those customs, manners, beliefs, and institutions that 

1 In early times they had settlements in Northern Italy and in Campania. 

2 This interesting memorial of Etruscan art was acquired by the Metropolitan 
Museum of New York City at a cost of $48,000. It was found in an ancient Etruscan 
cemetery (1901). Almost every part of the chariot, including the wheels, was sheathed 
in figured bronze. The relic probably dates from the seventh century B.C. 

3 Notice carefully the large area covered by the Italian color on the accompanying 
map. The Italian race formed the best part of the material out of which the real 
Roman nation was formed. 




Fig. 60. An Etruscan Chariot 2 
(From a photograph) 



§ 227] EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY 149 

formed the common possession of the Indo-European peoples. 
Their life was for the most part that of shepherds and farmers. 

The most important of the Italian peoples were the Latins, who 
dwelt in Latium. According to tradition there were in all Latium 
in prehistoric times thirty towns or petty city-states, like those of 
early Greece. These had formed an alliance among themselves 
known as the Latin League. At the dawn of history the leadership 
in this confederacy was held by Rome, which was situated on a 
cluster of low hills on the left bank of the Tiber, about fifteen 
miles from the sea. This little fortress town was doubtless in- 
tended as an outpost to protect the northern frontier of Latium 
against the Etruscans, the most powerful and aggressive neighbors 
of the Latin people. 

The city of Rome, which was destined to play such a great part in 
history, had been formed by the union in prehistoric times of three 
or more settlements, the dwellings of which were upon the slopes 
or at the foot of the hills just mentioned. Its location was for- 
tunate. Its distance from the sea protected it against the dep- 
redations of the pirates who in early times swarmed in the 
Mediterranean, while its location on the chief stream of Cen- 
tral Italy naturally made it the center of the lucrative trade of a 
wide reach of inland territory bordering upon the Tiber and its 
tributaries. 

Concerning the government and the religious and social arrange- 
ments of the Roman community, and concerning the fortunes of 
the city of Rome under its early kings, we shall give a brief 
account in the next chapter. 

References. Mommsen, T., vol. i, chaps, i, ii. Freeman, E. A., Historical 
Geography of Europe, vol. i (text), pp. 7-9, 43-49. Tozer, H. F., Classical 
Geography, chaps, ix, x. Dennis, G., The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 
vol. i, introduction (the author probably exaggerates the debt which the early 
civilization of Rome owed to the preceding culture of Etruria). Lei. and, C. G., 
Etruscan - Roman Remains. 




CHAPTER XXV 

ROMAN INSTITUTIONS; ROME UNDER THE KINGS 

I. SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT 

228. The Roman Family ; the Worship of Ancestors. At the 
base of Roman society and forming its smallest unit was the family. 
This was a very different group from that which among us bears 
the same name. The typical Roman family consisted of the father 
(paterfamilias) and mother, the sons together with their wives and 
sons, and the unmarried daughters. 

The most important feature or element of this family group was 
the unrestrained authority of the father. In early times his power 
over every member of the family was in law absolute, though cus- 
tom required that in cases involving severe punishment he should 
seek the advice of a council of near relatives. He could for mis- 
conduct sell a son of mature years into slavery or even put him 
to death. 

The father was the high priest of the family, for the family had 
a common worship. This was the cult of domestic divinities and 
the spirits of ancestors. These latter were believed to linger near 
the old hearth. If provided with frequent offerings of meat and 
drink, they would, it was thought, watch over the living members 
of the family and aid and prosper them in their daily work and 
in all their undertakings. If they were neglected, however, these 

150 



§229] THE FAMILY IN ROMAN HISTORY 151 

spirits became restless and suffered pain, and in their anger would 
bring trouble in some form upon their undutiful kinsmen. 

229. The Place of the Family in Roman History. It would 
be difficult to overestimate the influence of the family upon the 
history and destiny of Rome. It was the cradle of at least some 
of those splendid virtues of the early Romans that contributed so 
much to the strength and greatness of Rome, and that helped to 
give her the dominion of the world. It was in the atmosphere of 
the family that were nourished in the Roman youth the virtues of 
obedience, of deference to authority, and of submission to law and 
custom. When the youth became a citizen, obedience to magis- 
trates and respect for law were with him an instinct and indeed 
almost a religion. And, on the other hand, the exercise of the 
parental authority in the family taught the Roman how to com- 
mand as well as how to obey — how to exercise authority with 
wisdom, moderation, and justice. 

230. Dependents of the Family : Clients and Slaves. Besides 
those members constituting the family proper there were attached 
to it usually a number of dependents. These were the clients and 
the slaves. The client was a person standing in a semi-servile rela- 
tion to the head of the family, who was called his patron. The 
class of clients was probably made up largely of homeless refugees 
or strangers from other cities, or of freed slaves dwelling in their 
former master's house. They were free to engage in business at 
Rome and to accumulate property, though whatever they gathered 
was legally the property of the patron. 

The duty of the patron was, in general, to look after the interests 
of his client, especially to represent him before the legal tribunals. 
The duty of the client, on the other hand, was faithfulness to his 
patron, and the making of contributions of money to aid him in 
meeting unusual expenses. 

The slaves constituted merely a part of the family property. 
There were only a few slaves in the early Roman family, and these 
were held for service chiefly within the home and not in the fields. 
It was not until later times, when luxury crept into Rome, that 
the number of domestic slaves became excessively great. 



152 ROMAN INSTITUTIONS [§231 

231. The Clan, the Curia, the Tribe, and the City. Above 
the family stood the clan or gens. This was probably in the earli- 
est times simply the expanded family, the members of which had 
outgrown the remembrance of their exact relationship. Yet they 
all believed themselves to have had a common ancestor and called 
themselves by his name, as the Fabii, the Claudii, the Julii, and 
so on. The gens, like the family, had a common altar. 

The next largest group or division of the community was the 
curia. This was the most important political division of the people 
in early Rome. Levies for the army were made by curiae, and vot- 
ing in the primitive assembly of the people, as we shall explain 
presently, was done by these same bodies. There were thirty curiae 
in primitive Rome. 

Above the curiae was the tribe, the largest subdivision of the 
community. In early Rome there were three tribes, each com- 
prising ten curiae. 

These several groups made up the community of early Rome. 
This city, like the cities of ancient Greece, was a city-state ; 
that is, an independent sovereign body like a modern nation. 
As such it possessed a constitution and government, concerning 
which we will next give a short account. 

232. The King and the Senate. At the head of the early 
Roman state stood a king, the father of his people, holding essen- 
tially the same relation to them that the father of a family held to 
his household. He was at once ruler of the nation, commander of 
the army, and judge and high priest of his people. He was pre- 
ceded by servants called lictors, each bearing a bundle of rods 
(the fasces) with an ax bound therein, the symbol of his power 
to punish by flogging and by putting to death (Fig. 63). 

Next to the king stood the Senate, a body composed of the 
" fathers," or heads of the ancient clans of the community. Two 
important functions of the Senate were to give counsel to the 
king and to cast the decisive vote on all measures passed by the 
assembly of citizens. 

233. The Popular Assembly. The popular assembly (comitia 
curiata) comprised all the freemen of Rome. The manner of 



§234] THE RIGHTS OF ROMAN CITIZENSHIP 153 

taking a vote in this assembly should be noted, for the usage here 
was followed in all the later popular assemblies of the republican 
period. The voting was not by individuals but by curiae ; that is, 
each curia had one vote, and the measure before the body was 
carried or lost according as a majority of the curias voted for or 
against it. 

It should be further noted that this assembly was not a repre- 
sentative body, like a modern legislature, but a primary assembly ; 
that is, a meeting like a New England town meeting. All of the 
later assemblies at Rome were like this primitive assembly. The 
Romans never learned, or at least never employed, the principle of 
representation. How important the bearing of this was upon the 
political fortunes of Rome we shall learn later. 

234. The Rights of Roman Citizenship. The rights of the 
Roman citizen were divided into private rights and public rights. 
The chief private rights were two, namely, the right of trade and 
the right to intermarry with Roman citizens. The right of trade 
or commerce was the right to acquire, to hold, and to bequeath 
property (both personal and landed) according to the forms of the 
Roman law. This in the ancient city was an important right and 
privilege ; it was in general denied to aliens. The right to inter- 
marry with Roman citizens was especially important, because 
such a marriage carried with it the paternal power (sect. 228) 
and other civil rights. 

The three chief public or political rights of the Roman citizen 
were the right of voting in the public assemblies, the right of 
holding office, and the right of appeal from the decision of a 
magistrate to the people. 

These rights taken together constituted the most highly valued 
rights and privileges of the Roman citizen. What we should 
particularly notice is that the Romans adopted the practice of 
bestowing these rights in installments, so to speak. For instance, 
the inhabitants of one vanquished city would be given a part of 
the private rights of citizenship, those of another perhaps all of 
this class of rights, while upon the inhabitants of a third place 
would be bestowed all the rights, both private and public. This 



154 ROMAN INSTITUTIONS [§235 

usage created many different classes of citizens in the Roman 
state ; and this, as will appear later, was one of the most important 
matters connected with the internal history of Rome. 

235. Patricians and Plebeians. In early Rome there were two 
classes or orders, known as patricians and plebeians. The patricians 
formed the hereditary nobility of the state. They alone possessed 
all the rights of citizenship as enumerated in the preceding section. 

The plebeians (from plehs, "the multitude") were the humbler 
members of the community. Some of this class were shopkeepers, 
artisans, and manual laborers living in Rome ; but the larger 
number were small landowners living outside the city in scattered 
hamlets, and tilling with their own hands their little farms of a 
few acres in extent. 

From most of the rights and privileges of the full citizen the 
plebeians were wholly shut out. They could not contract a legal 
marriage with one of the patrician order. They could not hold 
office nor appeal from the decision of a magistrate. A large part of 
the early history of Rome as a republic is made up of the struggles 
of these plebeians to better their economic condition and to secure 
for themselves social and political equality with the patricians. 

II. RELIGION 

236. The Place of Religion in Roman History. In Rome, as 
in the ancient cities of Greece, religion, aside from the domestic 
and local cults, was an affair of the state. The magistrates of the 
city possessed a sort of priestly character ; and since almost every 
official act was connected in some way with the rites of the temple 
or the sacrifices of the altar, it happens that the political history 
of the Romans is closely interwoven with their religion. 

237. Roman Deities. Chief of the Roman deities was Jupiter, 
identical in all essential attributes with the Hellenic Zeus. He 
was the special protector of the Roman people. To him, together 
with Juno his wife and Minerva goddess of wisdom, was conse- 
crated a magnificent temple upon the summit of the Capitoline 
Hill, overlooking the forum and the city. 



238] 



ORACLES AND DIVINATION 



155 



Mars, the god of war, was the favorite deity and the fabled 
father of the Roman race, who were fond of calling themselves the 
"Children of Mars." They proved themselves worthy offspring of 
the war-god. Martial games and festivals were celebrated in his 
honor during the first month of the Roman year — the month 
which bore, and still bears, in his honor, the name of March. 

Janus was a double-faced deity to whom the month of January 
was sacred, as were also all gates and doors. The gates of his 
temple were always kept open in 
time of war and shut in time of 
peace. 

The fire upon the household 
hearth- was regarded as the symbol 
of the goddess Vesta. Her wor- 
ship was a favorite one with the 
Romans. The nation, too, as a 
single great family, had a common 
national hearth in the temple of 
Vesta, where the sacred fires were 
kept burning from generation to 
generation by six virgins, daughters 
of the Roman state (see sect. 7). 

238. Oracles and Divination. The Romans, like the Greeks, 
thought that the will of the gods was communicated to men by 
means of oracles, and by strange sights, unusual events, or singular 
coincidences. There were no true oracles at Rome. The Romans, 
therefore, often had recourse to those of the Greeks. Particularly in 
great emergencies did they seek advice from the celebrated oracle 
of Apollo at Delphi. From Etruria was introduced the art of divi- 
nation, which consisted in discovering the will of the gods by the 
appearance of the inward parts of victims slain for the sacrifices. 

239. The Sacred Colleges. The four chief sacred colleges or 
societies were the Keepers of the Sibylline Books, the College of 
Augurs, the College of Pontiffs, and the College of Heralds. 

The Sibylline Books were volumes written in Greek, the origin 
of which was lost in fable. They were kept in a stone chest in a 




Fig. 61. Head of Janus. (From 
a Roman coin) 



iS6 



ROMAN INSTITUTIONS 



[§239 




vault beneath the Capitoline temple, and special custodians were 
appointed to take charge of them and interpret them. The books 
were consulted only in times of extreme danger. 

The duty of the members of the College of Augurs was to inter- 
pret the omens, or auspices, — which were casual sights or appear- 
ances, particularly the flight of birds, — by which means it was 
believed that Jupiter made known his will. Great skill was re- 
quired in the " taking of the auspices," as it was called. No busi- 
ness of importance, 
public or private, 
was entered upon 
without the auspices 
being first consulted 
to ascertain whether 
they were favorable. 
The College of 
Pontiffs was so 
called probably be- 
cause one of the 
duties of its members 
was to keep in re- 
pair a certain bridge 
(pons) over the Tiber. This guild was the most important of all 
the religious institutions of the Romans ; for to the pontiffs 
belonged the superintendence of all religious matters. The head 
of the college was called Pontifex Maximus, or "Chief Bridge 
Builder," which title was assumed by the Roman emperors, and 
after them by the Christian bishops of Rome ; and thus the name 
has come down to our times. 

The College of Heralds (Fetiales) had the care of all public 
matters pertaining to foreign nations. Thus, if the Roman people 
had suffered any wrong from another state, and war was deter- 
mined upon, then it was the duty of a herald to proceed to the 
frontier of the enemy's country and hurl over the boundary a 
spear dipped in blood. This was a declaration of war. The 
Romans were very careful in the observance of this ceremony. 



Fig. 62. Divining by Means of the Appear- 
ance of the Entrails of a Sacrificial 
Victim 



§240] 



THE LEGENDARY KINGS 



157 



III. ROME UNDER THE KINGS (LEGENDARY DATE 

753-509 B.C.) 

240. The Legendary Kings. The early government of Rome 
was a monarchy. Tradition tells of the reigns of seven kings of 
whom the first was Romulus, the founder of the city, and the last 
Tarquinius Superbus, a haughty tyrant, whose oppressions led 
to the abolition by the 




The Seven Hills of Rome 



people of the office of 
king. 

The tradition hope- 
lessly blends fact and 
fable. Respecting Ro- 
man affairs, however, 
under the last three 
kings (the Tarquins), 
who were of Etruscan 
origin, some import- 
ant things are related, 
upon the substantial 
truth of which we may 
rely with a fair degree 
of certainty. 

241. Growth of Rome under the Tarquins. The Tarquins are 
represented by the legends as having extended their authority over 
much of Latium. The position of supremacy thus given Rome 
was attended by the rapid growth of the city in population and 
importance. The original walls soon became too strait for the 
increasing multitudes ; new ramparts were built which, with a 
great circuit of seven miles, swept around the entire cluster of 
seven hills that formed the site of the city, whence the name that 
Rome acquired of the "City of the Seven Hills." 

On a reclaimed tract of marshy ground was established the 
Forum, the public market place of the early city. At one end of 
this public square, as we should call it, was the Comitium, an in- 
closure where assemblies for voting purposes were held. In 



158 ROME UNDER THE KINGS [§242 

later times this assembling place was enlarged and decorated with 
various monuments and surrounded with splendid buildings and 
porticoes. For upwards of a thousand years this spot was one 
of the chief centers of the life and activities of the ancient world. 

The tradition tells further of military and constitutional re- 
forms effected by the second Etruscan king, Servius Tullius by 
name, which, giving the plebeians a place in the army, — from 
which they were at first excluded, — were an important step toward 
the establishment of social and political equality between the two 
great classes in the state. These reforms, it is true, as the his- 
torian Mommsen maintains, assigned to the plebeians duties 
chiefly, and not rights; but being called upon to discharge the 
most important duties of citizens, it was not long before they 
demanded all the rights of citizens — and as the bearers of arms 
they were able, as we shall see, to enforce their demands. 

The assembling place of the army was just outside the city 
walls, on a large plain called the Campus Martins, or Field of 
Mars. The meeting was called the comitia centuriata, or the 
Assembly of Centuries. 1 

242. The Expulsion of the Kings. The legends, as already 
noted, make Tarquinius Superbus the last king of Rome. He is 
represented as a monstrous tyrant, whose arbitrary acts caused 
both patricians and plebeians to unite and drive him and all his 
house into exile. This event, according to the Roman annalists, 
occurred in the year 509 B.C., only one year later than the expulsion 
of the tyrants from Athens (sect. 131). 

References. Plutarch, Romulus and Numa (in the case of these particular 
lives the student will of course bear in mind that he is reading Roman folklore ; 
but it is worth while for the student of Roman history to know what the 
Romans of later times themselves believed respecting their early kings). 
Mommsen, T., vol. i, bk. i, chaps, iv-xv. Seignobos, C. (Fairly ed.), History 
of the Roman People, chaps, ii, iv. Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman History, 
bk. i, chaps, ii, iii. Ihne, W. R., Early Rome. FoWLER, W. W., The City-state 
of the Greeks and Romans, chaps, ii, iii. Abbott, F. F., Roman Political Insti- 
tutions, chaps, i, ii. Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 28-32. 

1 The unit of the military organization was the century, probably containing in early 
times, as the name (centurid) indicates, one hundred men. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE EARLY REPUBLIC; PLEBEIANS BECOME CITIZENS WITH 

FULL RIGHTS 

(509-367 B.C.) 

243. Republican Magistrates : the Consuls and the Dictator. 
With the monarchy overthrown the people set to work to reor- 
ganize the government. In place of the king there were elected 
two patrician magistrates, called at first prcetors, or "leaders," 
but later consuls, or "colleagues." These magistrates were chosen 
for one year, and were invested at first with all the powers, save 
some priestly functions, that had been exercised by the king. In 
public each consul was attended, as the king had been, by twelve 
lictors, bearing the "dread fasces" (sect. 232). 

Each consul had the power of obstructing the acts or vetoing 
the commands of the other. This division of authority weakened 
the executive, so that in times of great public danger it was neces- 
sary to supersede the consuls by the appointment of a special 
officer bearing the title of dictator, whose term of office was limited 
to six months, but whose power during this time was as unlimited 
as that of the king had been. 

244. First Secession of the Plebeians (494 B.C.). A troublous 
period followed the expulsion of the Tarquins. During this time 
of disorder the poor plebeians fell more deeply in debt to the 
wealthy class, and payment was exacted with heartless severity. 
A debtor became the absolute property of his creditor, who might 
sell him as a slave to pay the debt, and in some cases even put 
him to death. 

The situation was intolerable. The plebeians, so tradition tells, 
resolved to secede from Rome and build a new city for themselves 
on a neighboring eminence, known afterwards as the Sacred Mount. 
Having on one occasion been called to arms to repel an invasion, 

•59 



i6o 



THE EARLY REPUBLIC 



[§245 



they refused to march out against the enemy, but instead marched 
away in a body from Rome to the spot selected beforehand and 
began to make preparations for erecting new homes. 

245. The Covenant and 
the Tribunes. The patri- 
cians well knew that such a 
divisionwouldprove ruinous 
to the state, and that the 
plebeians must be persuaded 
to give up their enterprise 
and come back to Rome. A 
commission was sent to treat 
with the insurgents. The 
plebeians were at first ob- 
durate, but at last were 
persuaded to yield to the 
entreaties of the embassy to 
return, being won to this 
mind, so it is said, by one 
of the wise senators, who 
made use of the well-known 
fable of the Body and the 
Members. 

The following covenant 
was entered into and bound 
by the most solemn oaths : 
The debts of the poor 
plebeians were to be can- 
celed and debtors held in 
slavery set free ; and there 
were to be chosen two plebeian magistrates (the number was soon 
increased to ten), called tribunes, whose duty it should be to watch 
over and protect the plebeians. 

That the tribunes might be the protectors of the plebeians in 
something more than name, they were invested with an extraor- 
dinary power known as the jus auxilii, "the right of aid"; that 




Fig. 63. Lictors with Fasces 

The symbolic fasces borne by these officers were 

probably of Etruscan origin. The Tarquins are 

said to have brought them to Rome, along with 

other insignia of the kingly office 



§246] BORDER WARS AND BORDER TALES 161 

is, they were given the right, should any patrician magistrate at- 
tempt to deal wrongfully with a plebeian, to annul his act or stop 
his proceeding. 

The persons of the tribunes were made sacrosanct, that is, 
inviolable, like the persons of heralds. Anyone interrupting a 
tribune in the discharge of his duties or doing him any violence 
was declared an outlaw whom anyone might kill. That the tribunes 
might be always easily found, they were not allowed to go more 
than one mile beyond the city walls. Their houses were to be open 
night and day, that any plebeian unjustly dealt with might flee 
thither for protection and refuge. 

We cannot overestimate the importance of this establishment of 
the plebeian tribunate. Under the protection and leadership of 
the tribunes, who were themselves protected by oaths of inviolable 
sanctity, the plebeians carried on a struggle for a share in the 
offices and dignities of the state which never ceased until the 
Roman government, as yet only republican in name, became in 
fact a real democracy, in which patrician and plebeian shared 
equally in all rights and privileges. 

246. Border Wars and Border Tales ; Cincinnatus. The chief 
enemies of early Rome and her Latin allies were the Volscians, 
the jEquians, the Sabines, and the Etruscans. For more than a 
hundred years after the founding of the Republic, Rome, either 
alone or in connection with her confederates, was almost constantly 
fighting one or another or all of these peoples. But these oper- 
ations cannot be regarded as real wars. They were, on both sides, 
for the most part mere plundering forays or cattle-raiding expedi- 
tions into the enemy's territories. We shall probably not get a 
wrong idea of their real character if we liken them to the early 
so-called border wars between England and Scotland. Like the 
Scottish wars, they were embellished by the story-tellers with the 
most picturesque tales. One of the best known of these is that 
of Cincinnatus. 

According to the tradition, while one of the consuls was away 
fighting the Sabines, the ^quians defeated the forces of the 
other and shut them up in a narrow valley whence escape seemed 



l62 



THE EARLY REPUBLIC 



[§247 



impossible. There was great terror in Rome when news of the 
situation of the army was brought to the city. The Senate im- 
mediately appointed Cincinnatus, a grand old patrician, dictator. 
The commissioners who carried to him the message from the 
Senate found him upon his little farm across the Tiber, at work 




*\-^ The Roman J'omain. 

. !.;> ■ .. I ■■., ■ ,- i .,- i, 

:' : '\\ The original domain of the city of Rt 



The Roman Domain and the Latin Confederacy in the Time of 
the Early Republic, about 450 b.c 



ploughing. Cincinnatus at once accepted the office, gathered an 
army, surrounded and captured the enemy, and sent them all 
beneath the yoke. 1 He then led his army back to Rome in 
triumph, laid down his office, having held it only sixteen days, and 
sought again the retirement of his farm. 

247. The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables of Laws (tradi- 
tional date 451-450 B.C.). Written laws are always a great safe- 
guard against oppression. Until what shall constitute a crime and 

1 This was formed of two spears thrust firmly into the ground and crossed a few 
feet from the earth by a third spear. Prisoners of war were forced to pass beneath this 
yoke as a symbol of submission. 



§247] THE TWELVE TABLES OF LAWS 163 

what shall be its penalty are clearly written down and well known 
and understood by all, judges may render unfair decisions or inflict 
unjust punishment, and yet run little risk of being called to an 
account ; for no one but themselves knows what either the law or 
the penalty really is. Hence in all struggles of the people against 
the tyranny of a ruling class the demand for written law is one 
of the first measures taken by them for the protection of their 
persons and property. Thus the commons of Athens, early in their 
struggle with the nobles, demanded and obtained a code of written 
laws (sect. 128). The same thing now took place at Rome. The 
plebeians demanded that the laws be written down and published. 
The patricians offered a stubborn resistance to their wishes, but 
finally were forced to yield to the popular clamor. 

A commission, so tradition says, was sent to the Greek cities 
of Southern Italy and to Athens to study their laws and customs. 
Upon the return of this embassy a commission of ten magistrates, 
known as decemvirs, was appointed to frame a code of laws. The 
code when finally finished was written on twelve tablets of bronze, 
which were fastened to the Rostra, or orator's platform in the 
Forum, where they might be seen and read by all. Only a few 
fragments of these celebrated laws have been preserved, but the 
substance of a considerable part of the code is known to us through 
the allusions to it in the works of later writers and jurists. The 
following quotations will give some idea of the character of this 
primitive law-system — the starting-point of a great development 
(see sect. 346). 

The provisions regarding the treatment of debtors are note- 
worthy. The law provided that, after the lapse of a certain 
number of days of grace, the creditor of a delinquent debtor might 
put him in the stocks or in chains, sell him to any stranger resi- 
dent beyond the Tiber, or put him to death. In case there were 
several creditors the law provided as follows: "After the third 
market day his [the debtor's] body may be divided. Any one 
taking more than his just share shall be held guiltless." We are 
informed by later Roman writers that this savage provision of the 
law was, as a matter of fact, never carried into effect. 



1 64 THE EARLY REPUBLIC [§248 

A special provision touching the power of the father over his 
sons provided that "during their whole life he shall have the right 
to imprison, scourge, keep to rustic labor in chains, to sell or to 
slay, even though they may be in the enjoyment of high state 
offices." The prevalence of popular superstitions is revealed by 
one of the laws which provides for the punishment of any one 
who by enchantments should blight the crops of another. 

These "Laws of the Twelve Tables" formed the basis of all 
new legislation, touching private or personal rights, for many 
centuries, and constituted a part of the education of the Roman 
youth, every schoolboy being required to learn them by heart. 

248. Sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 B.C.). We have noticed 
how in early times Celtic tribes from Gaul crossed the Alps and 
established themselves in Northern Italy. Soon after the opening 
of the fourth century b.c. great hordes of these barbarians made a 
devastating raid through Central Italy. Finally they appeared in 
the neighborhood of Rome. A Roman army met them on the 
banks of the Allia, eleven miles from the capital. But an un- 
accountable panic seized the Romans, and they abandoned the 
field in disgraceful flight. It would be impossible to picture the 
consternation and despair that reigned at Rome when the fugitives 
brought to the city intelligence of the terrible disaster. It was 
never forgotten, and the day of the battle of the Allia was ever 
after a black day in the Roman calendar. The sacred vessels of 
the temples were buried ; the eternal fires of Vesta were hurriedly 
borne by their virgin keepers to a place of safety in Etruria ; and 
a large part of the population fled in dismay across the Tiber. 
No attempt was made to defend any portion of the city save the 
citadel. 

Unable to dislodge the little garrison within the citadel, the 
Gauls finally opened negotiations with the Romans. For one 
thousand pounds of gold the Gauls agreed to retire from the city. 
As the story runs, while the gold was being weighed, out in the 
Forum the Romans complained that the weights were false, when 
Brennus, the Gallic leader, threw his sword also into the scales, 
exclaiming, " Vae victis ! " (Woe to the vanquished ! ) Just at this 



§249] THE LICINIAN LAWS 165 

moment, so the tale continues, Camillus, a brave patrician general 
who had been appointed dictator, appeared upon the scene with 
a Roman army that had been gathered from the fugitives. As he 
scattered the barbarians with heavy blows he exclaimed, " Rome 
is ransomed with steel, and not with gold.'' 

The city, which the Gauls had burned, was quickly rebuilt. 
There were some things, however, which could not be restored. 
These were the ancient records, through whose irreparable loss the 
early history of Rome is involved in great obscurity. 

249. The Licinian Laws (367 B.C.). A great advance of the 
plebeians towards political equality with the patricians, for which 
the plebeians had contended ever since the expulsion of the kings, 
was effected through the passage of the Licinian Laws, so called 
from one of their proposers, the tribune Gaius Licinius. Among 
other provisions these laws contained the following : ( 1 ) that of 
the two consuls one should be a plebeian ; ( 2 ) that in place of 
the two patrician keepers of the Sibylline Books (sect. 239) there 
should in the future be ten, and that five of these should be 
plebeians. 

The equalization of the two orders was now practically effected. 
The son of a peasant might rise to the highest office in the state. 
The plebeians later gained with comparative ease admission to the 
remaining offices from which the jealousy of the patricians still 
excluded them. 

The incorporation of the plebeians with the body of Roman 
citizens with full rights was a matter of immense import for the 
future of Rome. It greatly strengthened the state and insured the 
future of the city. It was followed by a century of successful 
wars which made Rome the mistress of Italy and paved the way 
for her advance to the dominion of the civilized world. 

References. Plutarch, Gains Martins Coriolanus. Mommsen, T., vol. i, 
bk. ii, chaps, i-iii. Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman Histoty, bk. ii, chap. i. 
How, W. W., and Leigh, H. D., History of Ro?ne, chaps, v-xiii. Shuckburgh, 
E. S., Histofy of Rome, chaps, v, viii, ix. Abbott, F. F., Roman Political Insti- 
tutions, pp. 24-57. Ihne, W., Early Rome, chaps, x-xxi. Frank, T., Roman ////- 
perialism, chaps, i, ii. Granrud, J. E., Roman Constitutional History, pp. 27-92. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE CONQUEST AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY 
(367-264 B.C.) 

250. The Roman Municipal System. In the time of the kings, 
when Alba Longa, a leading city of Latium, was taken by the 
Romans, the city was destroyed and its inhabitants transported in 
a body to Rome and incorporated with the Roman people. Later, 
in the times of the early republic, when Veii, a great Etruscan city, 
was captured, the greater part of the inhabitants were killed or 
sold as slaves, the vanquished community being thus broken up 
and, as it were, wiped out of existence. 

Now, Rome admittedly could not attain to greatness by following 
either of these two ways of treating vanquished enemies. Happily, 
very early in her history she hit upon a new governmental device 
which enabled her to incorporate into her growing dominions one 
conquered city after another until she had absorbed the whole 
Mediterranean world. This device was what is known as the mu- 
nicipal system, for the reason that the Roman writers gave to a 
city to which this system was applied the name municipium. 

We shall best secure a good understanding of the essential 
feature of this municipal system if we glance at the system as it 
exists among ourselves today ; for our so-called municipal system, 
in its underlying principle, is an inheritance from Rome. A mu- 
nicipality in our system of government is a city which, acting 
under a charter granted by the state in whose territory it is situ- 
ated and of which it forms a part, elects its own magistrates, and 
manages, with more or less supervision on the part of the state, its 
own local affairs. The essential principle involved in the arrange- 
ment is local self-government, carried on under the superior author- 
ity of the state. The city, without its local political life having been 
stifled, has been made a vital part of a larger political organism. 

1 66 



§ 251] THE REVOLT OF THE LATIN CITIES 167 

What we have now said will convey some idea of the important 
place which the municipal system of Rome holds in the develop- 
ment of free self-government among men. This was Rome's great, 
and almost her only, contribution to political constitutional his- 
tory, and after her law system her best gift to civilization. 

251. The Revolt of the Latin Cities (340-338 B.C.). This gov- 
ernmental device of the mimicipium was first applied by Rome, 
in a large way, to the neighboring cities of Latium. We have seen 
how at the opening of the historic period the little city-states of 
this region formed a federation known as the Latin League, of 
which Rome was the leading member (sect. 227). At the outset 
this association seems to have been somewhat like the Delian 
League, which, after the repulse of the Persians from Greece, Athens 
formed with her Ionian allies (sect. 145). But as time passed 
Rome began to play in the league the same role that Athens played 
in the Delian Confederacy. She used her position in the at first 
equal alliance between her and the Latin towns to make herself 
virtually their master. From allies they became dependents. With 
this position they could not be satisfied. They resolved that Rome 
should give up the sovereignty she was virtually exercising. Ac- 
cordingly they sent an embassy to Rome, demanding that the 
association should be made one of perfect equality. To this end 
the ambassadors proposed that in the future one of the consuls 
should be a Latin, and that one half of the Senate should be chosen 
from the Latin nation. Rome was to be the common fatherland, 
and all were to bear the Roman name. 

The demands of the Latin allies were refused, and war followed. 
After about three years' hard fighting, the rebellion was subdued. 
Rome now dissolved the Latin League and resettled her relations 
to its members. The essence of this famous settlement was that 
most of the cities — a few, three or four, were left their independ- 
ence — were made municipia of different grades ; that is to say, 
they were deprived of sovereignty and their territories were made 
a part of the Roman domain, but they were left their city consti- 
tutions and were allowed to live on as separate communities with 
local self-government inside the Roman state. The inhabitants of 



1 68 CONQUEST AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§252 



f 22 !^ 



some of these municipalities were admitted at once to full Roman 
citizenship, while those of others were allowed only a part of the 
rights and privileges of citizens. After a period of probation these 
semi-citizens 1 were all admitted to the full rights of the city. 

Rome was now fairly started on the way to greatness. She had 
laid the foundations of a state unlike anything the world had seen 
before, and one capable of great expansion. "It was, in short, 
to the liberal policy inaugurated by the statesman of 338 that 

the Roman city-state 
owed its capacity to 
unify Italy and make 
it one people." 2 

252. The Sam- 
nites. The most for- 
midable competitors 
of the Romans for 
supremacy in Italy 
were the Samnites, 
a rough and warlike 
mountain people who 
held the Apennines 
to the southeast of 
Latium. The successive struggles between these martial races — 
the ancient writers tell of three wars — extended over a period of 
half a century (about 343-290 B.C.), and in their course involved 
almost all the states of Italy. The Romans were finally victors. 
Within a short time after the subjection of the Samnites almost all 
the Greek cities of Southern Italy, except Tarentum, had also come 
under the growing power of the imperial city. 

During the course of these wars with the Samnites and their 
allies Rome had added extensive territories to her domain, and 
had made her hold of these secure by means of colonies and mili- 
tary roads; for it was at this time that Rome began the construc- 
tion of those remarkable highways that formed one of the most 

1 Known as cives sine snffragio (citizens without suffrage), since they could not vote 
in the assemblies at Rome. 2 Frank, Roman Imperialism (1914), p. 40. 




Fig. 64. The Appi an Way. (From a photograph) 



§253] THE WAR WITH TARENTUM 169 

impressive features of her later empire. The first of these roads, 
which ran from Rome to Capua, was begun in the year 312 b.c. 
by the censor Appius Claudius, and was called after him the 
Via Appia. 

253. The War with Tarentum and Pyrrhus ( 282-272 B.C. ). 
Tarentum, a seaport of Calabria, was one of the most opulent of 
the cities of Magna Graecia. The Tarentines having mistreated 
some Roman prisoners, the Roman Senate promptly sent an 
embassy to Tarentum to demand amends. In the theater, in the 
presence of a great assembly, one of the ambassadors was grossly 
insulted, his toga being befouled by a clownish fellow amidst the 
approving plaudits of a giddy crowd. The ambassador, raising 
the soiled garment, said sternly, "Laugh now; but you will weep 
when this toga is cleansed with blood." Rome at once declared 
war. 

The Tarentines turned to Greece for aid. Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus and a cousin of Alexander the Great, a restless man, who, 
as Plutarch says, " thought life consisted in troubling others 
and in being troubled," and who had an ambition to build up 
such an empire in the West as his famous kinsman had estab- 
lished in the East, responded to their entreaties, and crossed over 
into Italy with an army of Greek mercenaries and twenty war 
elephants. 

Pyrrhus' first battle with the Romans was won for him by his 
war elephants, the sight of which, being new to the Romans, caused 
them to flee from the field in dismay. But Pyrrhus had lost 
thousands of his bravest troops. As he looked over the battlefield 
he is said to have turned to his companions and remarked, 
"Another such victory and I shall be ruined"; hence the phrase 
"a Pyrrhic victory." 

After further campaigning, ending with a real defeat, Pyrrhus 
finally returned to Epirus, "leaving behind him nothing save a 
brilliant reputation." Tarentum soon afterwards surrendered to 
the Romans. This virtually ended the struggle for the mastery of 
Italy. Rome was soon mistress of all the peninsula south of the 
streams of the Arnus (Arno) and the Rubicon. 



170 CONQUEST AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§254 



M^ 1 



254. United Italy. This political union of Italy paved the way 
for the social and racial unification of the peninsula. The greatest 
marvel of all history is how Rome, embracing at first merely a 
handful of peasants, could have made so much of the ancient 
world like unto herself in speech, in custom, in manners, and largely 
in blood. That she did so, that she did thus Romanize a large 

part of the peoples of antiquity, is 
one of the most important matters 
in the history of the human race. 
Rome accomplished this great feat 
in large measure by means of her 
system of colonization, which was, 
in some respects, unlike that of any 
other people in ancient or in mod- 
ern times. We must make ourselves 
familiar with some of the main fea- 
tures of this unique colonial system. 
255. Roman Colonies and Latin 
Colonies. The colonies that Rome 
established in conquered territories 
fall into two classes, known as Roman 
colonies and Latin colonies. Roman 
colonies were made up of emigrants, 
generally three hundred in number, 
who retained in the new settlement 
all the rights and privileges, both 
private and public, of Roman citi- 
zens, though of course some of these rights, as for instance that 
of voting in the public assemblies at Rome, could be exercised 
by the colonist only through his return to the capital. Such 
colonies were in effect permanent military camps intended to 
guard or to hold in subjection conquered territories. Usually 
it was some conquered city that was occupied by the Roman 
colonists, the old inhabitants either being expelled in whole or 
in part or reduced to a subject condition. The colonists in their 
new homes organized a government which was almost an exact 




Fig. 65. Grotto of Posilipo 

(Near Naples) 

An old Roman tunnel, about half a 

mile in length, still in use on the 

Appian Way 



§255] ROMAN AND LATIN COLONIES 171 

imitation of that of Rome, and through their own assemblies 
and magistrates managed all their local affairs. These colonies 
were, in a word, simply miniature Romes — centers from which 
radiated Roman culture into all the regions round about them. 

The Latin colonies were so called, not because they were founded 
by Latin settlers, but because their inhabitants possessed sub- 
stantially the same rights as the towns of the old Latin League. 
The Latin colonist possessed some of the most valuable of the 
private rights of Roman citizens, together with the capacity to 
acquire the suffrage by migrating to the capital and taking up 
a permanent residence there, provided he left behind in the town 
whence he came sons to take his place. 

There is an analogy between the status of a settler in an ancient 
Latin colony and of a settler in a territory of our Union. When a 
citizen of any state migrates to a territory he loses his right of 
voting in a federal election, just as a Roman citizen in becoming 
a Latin colonist lost his right of voting in the assemblies at Rome. 
Then again, the resident of a territory has the privilege of changing 
his residence and settling in a state, thereby acquiring the federal 
suffrage, just as the inhabitant of a Latin colony could migrate 
to Rome and thus acquire the right to vote in the assemblies there. 

The Latin colonies numbered about thirty at the time of the 
Second Punic War. They were scattered throughout Italy, and 
formed, in the words of the historian Mommsen, "the real buttress 
of the Roman rule." They were, even to a greater degree than the 
Roman colonies, active and powerful agents in the dissemination 
of the Roman language, law, and culture. They were Rome's chief 
auxiliary in her great task of making all Italy Roman. 

All these colonies were kept in close touch with the capital by 
means of splendid military roads, the construction of which, as we 
have seen, was begun during the Samnite wars (sect. 252). 

References. Plutarch, Life of Pyrrkus. Mommsen, T., vol. i, bk. ii, 
chaps, v-ix. Ihne, W., vol. i, bk. iii, chap, xviii, " Condition of the Roman 
People before the Beginning of the Wars with Carthage." Heitland, W. E., 
vol. i, chaps, xvi-xx. Tighe, A., The Development of the Roman Constitution, 
chap. v. Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman History, bk. ii, chap. ii. Reid, 
J. S., The Municipalities of the Roman Empire, chaps, i-iii, iv (first part). 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

EXPANSION OF ROME BEYOND THE PENINSULA 

I. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR (264-241 b.c.) 

256. Carthage and her Empire. Foremost among the cities 
founded by the Phoenicians was Carthage, upon the northern 
coast of Africa. The favorable location of the colony upon one 
of the best harbors of the African coast gave the city a vast and 
lucrative commerce. By the time Rome had extended her au- 
thority over Italy, Carthage held sway, through peaceful coloniza- 
tion or by force of arms, over the northern coast of Africa, and 
possessed Sardinia as well as the larger part of Sicily. She also 
collected tribute from the natives of Corsica and of southern Spain. 
With all its shores dotted with her colonies and fortresses and 
swept in every direction by her war galleys, the western Mediter- 
ranean had become a "Phoenician lake," in which, as the Cartha- 
ginians boasted, no one dared wash his hands without their 
permission. 

257. Rome and Carthage compared. These two rival cities 
were now about to begin one of the most memorable struggles of 
antiquity. In material power and resources they seemed well 
matched as antagonists ; yet Rome had elements of strength, hid- 
den in the character of her citizens and embodied in the principles 
of her government, which Carthage did not possess. The Cartha- 
ginian government was a despotic oligarchy. The many different 
races of the empire were held in an artificial union by force alone, 
for the Carthaginians had none of the genius of the Romans for 
political organization and state building. The Roman state, on 
the other hand, as we have learned, was the most wonderful politi- 
cal organism that the world had ever seen. It was not yet a 
nation, but it was rapidly growing into one. Every free man 

172 



§258] CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE 173 

within its limits was either a citizen of Rome or was on the way 
to becoming a citizen. Rome was already the common fatherland 
of more than a quarter of a million of men. 

Again, the Carthaginian territories, though of great extent, were 
widely scattered, while the Roman domains were compact and 
confined to a single and easily defended peninsula. 

As to the naval resources of the two states, there existed at 
the beginning of the struggle no basis for a comparison. The 
Romans were almost destitute of anything that could be called 
a war navy, and were practically without experience in naval 
warfare; while the Carthaginians possessed the largest, the best- 
manned, and the most splendidly equipped fleet that had ever 
patrolled the waters of the Mediterranean. 

258. Causes of the Struggle ; the Naval Character of its 
First Phase. The real causes of the long wars between Rome and 
Carthage were commercial jealousy and rivalry for the control of 
the western Mediterranean, particularly of the island of Sicily. 
In its earlier period the struggle was a series of naval combats, the 
Romans having hastily built a great fleet of war galleys patterned 
after the Carthaginian ships. After a single great naval victory 
and many tragic disasters, the Romans finally succeeded in inflict- 
ing upon the Carthaginians a decisive naval defeat. Carthage 
now sued for peace. 

259. Terms of the Treaty ; Transfer of Sea Power. A treaty 
was at length arranged, the terms of which required that Carthage 
should give up all claims to the island of Sicily, surrender all 
her prisoners, and pay an indemnity of 3200 talents (about 
$4,000,000), one third of which was to be paid down, and the 
balance in ten yearly payments. Thus ended (241 B.C.), after a 
continuance of twenty-four years, the first great struggle between 
Carthage and Rome. 

One important result of the war was the crippling of the sea 
power of the Phoenician race, which from time immemorial had 
been a most prominent factor in the history of the Mediterranean 
lands, and the giving practically of the control of the sea into the 
hands of the Romans. 



174 EXPANSION OF ROME [§260 

II. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (218-201 b.c.) 

260. The Carthaginians in Spain. After the disastrous ending 
of the First Punic War, the Carthaginians sought to repair their 
losses by new conquests in Spain. Hamilcar Barca, an able com- 
mander, was sent over into that country, and for nine years he 
devoted his commanding genius to organizing the different Iberian 
tribes into a compact state and to developing the rich gold and 
silver mines of the southern part of the peninsula. He fell in 
battle 228 b.c. 

As a rule, genius is not transmitted ; but in the Barcine family 
the rule was broken, and the rare genius of Hamilcar reappeared 
in his sons, whom he himself, it is said, was fond of calling the 
"lion's brood." As Hannibal, the eldest, was only nineteen at the 
time of his father's death, and thus too young to assume com- 
mand, Hasdrubal, the son-in-law of Hamilcar, was chosen to 
succeed him. 

Upon the death of Hasdrubal, which occurred 221 b.c, Hanni- 
bal, now twenty-six years of age, was by the unanimous voice of 
the army called to be its leader. When a child of nine years he 
had been led by his father to the altar, and there, with his hands 
upon the sacrifice, the little boy had sworn eternal hatred to the 
Roman race. He was driven on to his gigantic undertakings and 
to his hard fate not only by the restless fires of his warlike genius 
but, as he himself declared, by the sacred obligations of a vow 
that could not be broken. 

Hannibal having laid siege to Saguntum, — a native city upon 
the east coast of Spain which the Romans had taken under their 
protection, — the Senate sent messengers to him forbidding him to 
make war upon a city that was an ally of the Roman people ; 
but Hannibal, disregarding their remonstrances, continued the 
siege and finally gained possession of the town. 

The Romans now sent commissioners to Carthage to demand 
of the Senate that they give up Hannibal to them, and by so 
doing repudiate the act of their general. The Carthaginians hesi- 
tated. Then Quintus Fabius, chief of the embassy, gathering up 



§261] 



FABIUS "THE DELAYER" 



175 



his toga, said : "I carry here peace and war ; choose, men of 
Carthage, which ye will have." "Give us whichever ye will," was 
the reply. "War, then," said Fabius, dropping his toga. 

261. Hannibal's Passage of the Alps. The Carthaginian em- 
pire was now all astir with preparations for the mighty struggle. 
Hannibal's bold plan was to cross the Pyrenees and the Alps and 
descend upon Rome from the north. Early in the spring of 218 B.C. 
he set out from New Carthage with an army numbering about a 
hundred thousand men, and including 
thirty-seven war elephants. Traversing 
northern Spain and crossing the 
Pyrenees and the Rhone, he reached 
the foothills of the Alps. The season 
was already far advanced, — it was 
October, — and snow was falling upon 
the higher portions of the trail, so that 
the passage of the mountains was ac- 
complished only after severe toil and 
losses. At length the thinned columns, 
numbering barely twenty-six thousand 
men, defiled upon the plains of the Po. 
This was the pitiable force with which 

Hannibal proposed to attack the Roman state, — a state that at 
this time had on its levy lists over seven hundred thousand foot 
soldiers and seventy thousand horse. 

262. Fabius "the Delayer." In three successive battles the 
Romans were defeated and their armies virtually destroyed. The 
way to Rome was now open. Believing that Hannibal would 
march directly upon the city, the Senate caused the bridges that 
spanned the Tiber to be destroyed, and appointed Fabius Maximus 
dictator. Fabius "saved the state by wise delay." Realizing that 
to risk a battle and lose it would be to lose everything, he adopted 
the more prudent policy of following and annoying with a small 
force the Carthaginian army, but refusing all proffers of battle. 
By this policy time was gained for raising a new army and per- 
fecting measures for the public defense. 




Fig. 66. Hannibal 



176 EXPANSION OF ROME [§263 

263. The Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). Early in the summer 
of the year 216 b.c. the new levies, numbering eighty thousand 
men, under the command of recently chosen consuls, confronted 
the army of Hannibal, amounting to not more than half that num- 
ber, at Cannae, on the banks of the Aufidus, in Apulia. Here the 
Romans suffered a tragic defeat. From forty to seventy thousand 
are said to have been slain ; only a handful escaped. The slaughter 
was so great that, according to Livy, when Mago, a brother of 
Hannibal, carried the news of the victory to Carthage, he, in 
confirmation of the intelligence, poured out on th* 1 floor of the 
senate house nearly a peck of gold rings taken from the fingers 
of Roman knights. 

264. Hasdrubal attempts to carry Aid to his Brother ; Battle 
of the Metaurus (207 B.C.). For almost a decade after the battle 
of Cannae the war went on with many vicissitudes. During all 
these years, while Hannibal was waging war in Italy, his brother 
Hasdrubal was carrying on a desperate struggle with the Roman 
armies in Spain. At length he determined to leave the conduct of 
the war in that country to others and go to the relief of his brother, 
who now was sadly in need of aid. He followed the same route 
that had been taken by Hannibal, and in the year 207 b.c. 
descended from the Alps upon the plains of Northern Italy. Thence 
he advanced southward, while Hannibal moved northward from 
Bruttium to join him. At the river Metaurus, Hasdrubal's march 
was blocked by a large Roman army. Here his forces were cut to 
pieces, and he himself was slain. His head was severed from his 
body and sent to Hannibal. Upon recognizing the features of his 
brother, Hannibal, it is said, exclaimed sadly, "Carthage, I read 
thy fate." 

265. The Romans carry the War into Africa; Battle of Zama 
(202 B.C.). Hannibal now drew back into the rocky peninsula 
of Bruttium. No one dared attack him. It was resolved to carry 
the war into Africa, in the hope that the Carthaginians would 
be forced to call their great commander out of Italy to the de- 
fense of Carthage. The consul Publius Cornelius Scipio led the 
army of invasion. He had not been long in Africa before the 



§266] THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 177 

Carthaginian senate sent for Hannibal. At Zama, not far from 
Carthage, the hostile armies met. Hannibal here suffered his 
first and last defeat. 

266. The Close of the War (201 B.C.). Carthage was now 
completely exhausted and sued for peace. The terms of the treaty 
were much severer than those imposed upon the city at the end 
of the First Punic War. She was required to give up all claims 
to Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean, to surrender her 
war elephants and all her ships of war save ten galleys ; to pay 
an indemnity of four thousand talents (about $5,000,000) at once, 
and two hundred talents annually for fifty years ; and not, under 
any circumstances, to make war upon an ally of Rome. Five 
hundred of the costly Phoenician war galleys were towed out of the 
harbor of Carthage and burned. 

Such was the end of the Hannibalic War, as it was called by the 
Romans. Scipio was accorded a grand triumph at Rome, and in 
honor of his achievements given the surname Ajricanus. 

267. Effects of the War on Italy. Italy never entirely recov- 
ered from the calamitous effects of this war. Agriculture in some 
districts was almost ruined. The peasantry had been torn from 
the soil and driven within the walled towns. The slave class had 
increased, and the estates of the great landowners had constantly 
grown in size and absorbed the little holdings of the ruined 
peasants. In thus destroying the Italian peasantry, Hannibal's 
invasion and long occupancy of the peninsula did very much to 
aggravate all those economic evils which even before this time 
were at work undermining the earlier sound industrial life of the 
Romans, and filling Italy with a numerous and dangerous class 
of homeless and discontented men. 

III. EXPANSION OF ROME INTO THE EAST 

268. Introductory. The terms imposed upon Carthage at the 
end of the Second Punic War left Rome mistress of the western 
Mediterranean. During the eventful half century that elapsed 
between the close of that struggle and the breaking out of the 



178 EXPANSION OF ROME [§269 

Third Punic War her authority became supreme also in the east- 
ern Mediterranean. In an earlier chapter, in which we narrated the 
fortunes of the most important states into which the great empire 
of Alexander was broken at his death, we followed their several 
histories until, one after another, they fell beneath the arms of 
Rome, and were absorbed into her growing dominions (Chapter 
XIX). We shall therefore in this place speak only of the effects 
upon Rome of these conquests. 

269. Reaction of the East upon Rome. In entering Greece 
the Romans had entered the homeland of Greek culture, with 
which they had first come in close contact in Magna Graecia. This 
culture was in many respects vastly superior to their own, and for 
this reason it exerted a profound influence upon life and thought 
at Rome. Greek manners and customs, Greek modes of education, 
and Greek literature and philosophy became the fashion at Rome, 
so that Roman society seemed in a fair way of becoming Hellen- 
ized. And to a certain degree this did take place. So many and 
so important were the elements of Greek culture which in the 
process of time were taken up and absorbed by the Romans 
that there ceased to be such a thing in the world as a pure 
Latin civilization. We recognize this intimate blending of the 
cultures of the two great peoples of classical antiquity when we 
speak of the civilization of the later Roman Empire as being 
Graeco-Roman. 

But along with the many helpful elements of culture which the 
Romans received from the East, they received also many germs 
of great social and moral evils. Life in Greece and in the Orient 
had become degenerate and corrupt. Close communication with 
this society, in union with other influences which we shall notice 
later, corrupted life at Rome. " To learn Greek is to learn knav- 
ery " became a proverb. The simplicity and frugality of the earlier 
times were replaced by oriental extravagance, luxury, and disso- 
luteness. Evidences of this decline in the moral life of the Romans, 
the presage of the downfall of the Republic, will multiply as we 
advance in our narrative. 



§270] "CARTHAGE SHOULD BE DESTROYED" 179 
IV. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR (149-146 B.C.) 

270. "Carthage should be destroyed." In the course of two 
or three decades after the close of the Second Punic War, Carthage 
regained much of her earlier prosperity. Now it happened that 
the chief of a Roman embassy sent to Carthage to conduct certain 
negotiations was Marcus Cato, the Censor. When he saw the pros- 
perity of Carthage, — her immense trade, which crowded her harbor 
with ships, and the country for miles back of the city a beautiful 
landscape of gardens and villas, — he was amazed at the growing 
power and wealth of the city, and returned home convinced that 
the safety of Rome demanded the destruction of her rival. All of 
his addresses after this — no matter on what subject — he is said 
invariably to have closed with the declaration, "Moreover, Car- 
thage should be destroyed." 

A pretext for destroying the city was not long wanting. Charg- 
ing the Carthaginians with having broken the conditions of the 
last treaty, — they had broken the mere letter of it, — the Romans 
laid siege to Carthage. For four years the city held out against 
the Roman army. At length the consul Scipio ^milianus 1 suc- 
ceeded in taking it by storm. The city was literally erased. Every 
trace of building which fire could not destroy was leveled, a plough 
was driven over the site, and a dreadful curse invoked upon any- 
one who should dare attempt to rebuild the city. 

Such was the hard fate of Carthage. Polybius, who was an eye- 
witness of the destruction of the city, records that Scipio, as he 
gazed upon the smoldering ruins, seemed to read in them the fate 
of Rome, and, bursting into tears, sadly repeated the lines of 
Homer : 

The day shall be when holy Troy shall fall 
And Priam, lord of spears, and Priam's folk. 2 

The Carthaginian territory in Africa was made into a Roman 
province, with Utica as the leading city ; and by means of traders 

1 Grandson by adoption of Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. After his 
conquest of Carthage he was known as Africanus Minor, 2 Iliad, vi. 448. 



180 EXPANSION OF ROME L§ 271 

and settlers Roman civilization was spread rapidly throughout the 
regions that lie between the ranges of the Atlas and the sea. 

271. The Significance of Rome's Triumph over Carthage. 
The triumph of Rome over Carthage may perhaps rightly be given 
as prominent a place in history as the triumph, more than three 
centuries before, of Greece over Persia. In each case Europe was 
saved from the threatened danger of becoming practically a mere 
dependency or extension of Asia. 

The Semitic Carthaginians had not the political aptitude and 
moral energy that characterized the Italians and the other Aryan 
peoples of Europe. Their civilization was lacking in elements of 
growth and expansion. Had this civilization been spread by con- 
quest throughout Europe, the germs of political, literary, artistic, 
and religious life among the Aryans of the continent might have 
been smothered, and their history have been rendered as barren 
in political and intellectual interest as the later history of the 
races of the Orient. 

It is these considerations which justify the giving of the battle 
of the Metaurus, which marks the real turning point in the long 
struggle between Rome and Carthage, a place along with the battle 
of Marathon in the short list of the really decisive battles of the 
world, — battles which, determining the trend of great currents of 
history, have decided the fate of races, of continents, and of 
civilizations. 

References. Polybius, i, 10-63 (f° r an account of the First Punic War) ; 
xxxix, 3-5 (the fall of Carthage ; it should be remembered that Polybius here 
writes as an eye-witness of the scenes that he describes). Plutarch, Faluns 
Maximus and Marcus Cato. Mommsen, T., vol. ii, bk. iii, chaps, i-xiv. 
Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman History, bk. iii, chaps, i-iii. Smith, R. B., 
Carthage and the Carthaginians and Rome and Carthage. Dodge, T. A., 
Hannibal. MORRIS, W. O., Hannibal. CHURCH, A. J., Story of Carthage 
(interesting for younger classes). Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of the World. 
chap, iv, " The Battle of the Metaurus." 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC 
(133-31 B.C.) 

272. Introductory. We have now traced in broad outlines the 
development of the institutions of republican Rome, and have told 
briefly the story of that wonderful career of conquest which made 
the little Palatine city first the mistress of Latium, then of Italy, 
and finally of the greater part of the Mediterranean world. In 
the present chapter we shall follow the declining fortunes of the 
Republic through the last century of its existence. During this 
time many agencies were at work undermining the institutions of 
the Republic and paving the way for the Empire. What these 
agencies were will best be made apparent by a simple narration of 
the events that crowd this memorable period of Roman history. 

273. The First Servile War in Sicily (134-132 B.C.). With 
the opening of this period we find a terrible struggle going on in 
Sicily between masters and slaves, — what is known as the First 
Servile War. The condition of affairs in that island was the 
outgrowth of the Roman system of slavery. 

The captives that the Romans took in war they usually sold 
into servitude. The great number furnished by their numerous 
conquests had caused slaves to become a drug in the slave markets 
of the Mediterranean world. They were so cheap that masters 
found it more profitable to wear their slaves out by a feWyears of 
unmercifully hard labor and then to buy others than to preserve 
their lives for a longer period by more humane treatment. In case 
of sickness they were often left to die without attention, as the 
expense of nursing exceeded the cost of new purchases. Some 
estates were worked by as many as twenty thousand slaves. 

The wretched condition of the slaves in Sicily, where the slave 
system exhibited some of its worst features, at last drove them to 

181 



1 82 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§274 

revolt. The insurrection spread throughout the island until two 
hundred thousand slaves were in arms — if axes, reaping hooks, 
staves, and roasting spits may be called arms. They defeated 
four Roman armies sent against them, and for three years defied 
the power of Rome. Finally, however, in the year 132 B.C., the 
revolt was crushed, and peace was restored to the distracted 
island. 

274. The Public Lands. In Italy itself affairs were in a hardly 
less wretched condition than in Sicily. At the bottom of a large 
part of the social and economic troubles here was the public-land 
system. By law or custom those portions of the public lands 
which remained unsold or unallotted as homesteads were open to 
anyone to till or to pasture. In return for such use of the public 
land the user paid the state usually a fifth or a tenth of the yearly 
produce. Persons who availed themselves of this privilege were 
called possessors or occupiers; we should call them "squatters" 
or "tenants at will." 

Now it had happened that, in various ways, the greater part 
of these public lands had fallen into the hands of the wealthy. 
They alone had the capital necessary to stock with cattle and slaves 
the new lands, and hence they were the sole occupiers of them. 
The small farmers everywhere, too, were being ruined by the unfair 
competition of slave labor, and their little holdings were passing 
by purchase, and often by fraud or barefaced robbery, into the 
hands of the great proprietors. The greater part of the lands of 
Italy, about the beginning of the first century B.C., are said to have 
been held by not more than two thousand persons. Thus, largely 
through the workings of the public-land system, the Roman people 
had become divided into two great classes, — the rich and the poor, 
the possessors and the non-possessors. 

275. The Reforms of the Gracchi. The most noted champions 
of the cause of the poorer classes against the rich and powerful 
were Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. These reformers are reckoned 
among the most popular orators that Rome ever produced. They 
eloquently voiced the wrongs of the people. Said Tiberius, "You 
are called ' lords of the earth' without possessing a single clod to 



§276] THE SOCIAL WAR 183 

call your own." The people made him tribune (134-133 b.c); 
and in that position he secured the passage of a law for the 
redistribution of the public lands, which gave some relief. 

As the end of his term of office drew near, Tiberius stood again 
for the tribunate. The aristocrats combined to defeat him. It 
came to riot and street fighting. The partisans of Tiberius were 
overpowered, and he and three hundred of his followers were killed 
in the Forum and their bodies thrown into the Tiber. This was the 
first time that the Roman Forum had witnessed such a scene of 
violence and crime. 

Gaius Gracchus now came forward to assume the position made 
vacant by the death of his brother Tiberius. The people elected 
him tribune. As tribune he won the affection of the poor of the 
city by carrying a law which provided that every Roman citizen, 
on personal application, should be given corn from the public 
granaries at half or less than half the market price. Gaius could 
not have foreseen all the evils to which this law was to lead. It 
led eventually to the free distribution of corn to all citizens who 
made application for it. Very soon a large proportion of the popu- 
lation of Rome was living in idleness and feeding at the public 
crib (sect. 352). 

Other measures in the interest of the people proposed by Gaius 
were bitterly opposed by the aristocrats, and the two orders at 
last came into collision. Gaius sought death by a friendly sword, 
and three thousand of his adherents were massacred. 

The common people ever regarded the Gracchi as martyrs, and 
their memory was preserved in later times by statues in the pub- 
lic square. To Cornelia, their mother, a monument was erected, 
bearing the simple inscription, "The Mother of the Gracchi." 

276. The Social War (91-89 B.C.). At the opening of the last 
century b.c. all the free inhabitants of Italy were embraced in 
three classes, — Roman citizens, Latins, and Italian allies. The 
Roman citizens included the inhabitants of the capital, of certain 
towns called municipia, and of the Roman colonies (sect. 255), 
besides the dwellers on isolated farms and the inhabitants of 
villages scattered everywhere throughout Italy. The Latins 



1 84 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§277 

comprised the inhabitants of the Latin colonies. The Italian allies 
were those conquered peoples that Rome had excluded wholly from 
the rights of the city. 

The Social War was a struggle that arose from the demands of 
the Italian allies for the privileges of Roman citizenship. Their 
demands being stubbornly resisted by both the aristocratic and 
the popular party at Rome, they took up arms, resolved upon the 
establishment of a rival state. A town called Corfinium, among 
the Apennines, was chosen as the capital of the new republic, and 
its name changed to Italica. Thus in a single day a large part of 
Italy south of the Rubicon was lost to Rome. 

Aristocrats and democrats now hushed their quarrels and fought 
bravely side by side for the endangered life of the Republic. The 
war lasted three years, and was finally brought to an end rather 
by prudent concessions on the part of Rome than by fighting. In 
the year 90 B.C., alarmed by signs of disaffection in certain of the 
communities that up to this time had remained faithful, Rome 
granted the franchise of the city to all Italian communities that 
had not declared war against her or had already laid down their 
arms. The following year the full rights of the city were offered 
to all Italians who should within two months appear before a 
Roman magistrate and express a wish for the franchise. This 
tardy concession to the just demands of the Italians virtually 
ended the war. 1 

277. Comments on the Political Results of the Social War. 
Thus as an outcome of the war practically all the freemen of Italy 
south of the Po were made equal in civil and political rights. This 
was a matter of great significance. "The enrollment of the Italians 
among her own citizens deserves to be regarded," declares the 
historian Merivale, " as the greatest stroke of policy in the whole 
history of the Republic." This wholesale enfranchisement of Latin 
and Italian allies more than doubled the number of Roman citizens. 

This equalization of the different classes of the Italian peninsula 
was simply a later phase of that movement in early Rome which 

1 After the close of the war the rights that up to this time had been enjoyed by the 
Latin towns were conferred upon all the cities between the Po and the Alps. 



§277] POLITICAL RESULTS OF THE SOCIAL WAR 185 

resulted in the equalization of the two orders of the patricians and 
the plebeians. But the purely political results of the earlier and 
those of the later revolution were very different. At the earlier 
time those who demanded and received the franchise were persons 
living either in Rome or in its immediate vicinity, and consequently 
able to exercise the acquired right to vote and to hold office. 

But now it was very different. These new-made citizens were 
living in towns and villages or on farms scattered all over Italy, 
and of course very few of them could ever go to Rome, either to 
participate in the elections there, to vote on proposed legislation, 
or to become candidates for the Roman magistracies. Hence the 
rights they had acquired were, after all, politically barren. But 
no one was to blame for this state of things. Rome had simply 
outgrown her city constitution and her system of primary assem- 
blies (sect. 233). She needed for her widening empire a representa- 
tive system like ours ; but representation was a political device far 
away from the thoughts of the men of those times. 

As a result of the impossibility of the Roman citizens outside of 
Rome taking part, as a general thing, in the meetings of the popu- 
lar assemblies at the capital, the offices of the state fell into the 
hands of those actually living in Rome or settled in. its immediate 
neighborhood. Since the free, or practically free, distribution of 
corn and the public shows were drawing to the capital from all 
quarters crowds of the poor, the idle, and the vicious, these assem- 
blies were rapidly becoming simply mobs controlled by noisy 
demagogues and unscrupulous military leaders aiming at the 
supreme power in the state. 

This situation brought about a serious division in the body of 
Roman citizens. Those of the capital came to regard themselves 
as the real rulers of the empire, as they actually were, and looked 
with disdain upon those living in the other cities and the remoter 
districts of the peninsula. They alone reaped the fruits of the 
conquered world. At the same time the mass of outside passive 
citizens, as we may call them, came to look with jealousy upon 
this body of pampered aristocrats, rich speculators, and ragged, 
dissolute clients and hangers-on at Rome. They became quite 




1 86 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§278 

reconciled to the thought of power passing out of the hands of such 
a crowd and into the hands of a single man. The feelings of men 
everywhere were being prepared for the revolution that was to 
overthrow the Republic and bring in the Empire. 

278. Marius and Sulla contend for Command in a War 
against Mithradates. While the Social War was still in progress 
in Italy a formidable enemy of Rome appeared in the East. 
Mithradates VI, surnamed the Great, king of Pontus, taking ad- 
vantage of the distracted condition of the Republic, had encroached 

upon the Roman possessions in Asia 
Minor, had caused a general massacre of 
the Italian traders and residents in that 
country, and had persuaded many of the 
cities in Greece to renounce the authority 
of Rome. The Roman Senate now be- 
stirred itself. An army was raised for 
the recovery of the Orient. Straightway 
Fig 67 Mithradates a contes t arose between Gaius Marius, an 
the Great. (Coin) able commander who had risen from the 
lowest ranks of the people, and a noble- 
man named Sulla, for the command of the forces. The Senate con- 
ferred this upon Sulla, who at that time was consul. Marius was 
furious. By violent means he succeeded in carrying a measure in 
an assembly of the people whereby the command was taken away 
from Sulla and given to him. Sulla now saw that" the sword 
must settle the dispute. He marched at the head of his legions 
upon Rome, entered the gates, and " for the first time in the an- 
nals of the city a Roman army encamped within the walls." The 
party of Marius was defeated, and he and ten of his companions 
were proscribed. Sulla soon embarked with the legions to meet 
Mithradates in the East (88 B.C.). 1 

279. Marius massacres the Aristocrats (87 B.C.). Returning 
from Africa, whither he had fled, Marius joined the consul Cinna 
in an attempt to crush by force the senatorial party. Rome was 
cut off from her food supplies and starved into submission. Marius 

1 This was what is known as the First Mithradatic War (88-84 b. c). 



§280] THE PROSCRIPTIONS OF SULLA 187 

now took a terrible revenge upon his enemies. The consul Gnaeus 
Octavius, who represented the aristocrats, was assassinated, and 
his head set up in front of the Rostra. Never before had such a 
thing been seen at Rome, — a consul's head exposed to the public 
gaze. For five days and nights a merciless slaughter was kept up. 
The life of every man in the capital was in the hands of the 
revengeful Marius. As a fitting sequel to all this violence, Marius 
and Cinna were, in an entirely illegal way, declared consuls. 
Marius was now consul for the seventh time. He enjoyed his 
seventh consulship only thirteen days, being carried away by 
death in the seventy-first year of his age (86 b.c). 

280. The Proscriptions of Sulla (82 B.C.). With the Mithra- 
datic war ended, Sulla wrote to the Senate, saying that he was 
now coming to take vengeance upon the Marian party, — his own 
and the Republic's foes. Landing with his army in Italy, Sulla, 
after much hard fighting, entered Rome with all the powers of 
a dictator. The leaders of the Marian party were proscribed, 
rewards were offered for their heads, and their property was con- 
fiscated. Sulla was implored to make out a list of those he 
designed to put to death, that those he intended to spare might be 
relieved of the terrible suspense in which all were now held. He 
made out a list of eighty, which was attached to the Rostra. The 
people murmured at the length of the roll. In a few days it was 
extended to over three hundred, and then grew rapidly until it 
included the names of thousands of the best citizens of Italy. 
Hundreds were murdered simply because some favorites of Sulla 
coveted their estates. A wealthy noble, coming into the Forum 
and reading his own name in the list of the proscribed, exclaimed, 
"Alas! my villa has proved my ruin." Julius Caesar, at this time 
a mere boy of eighteen, was proscribed on account of his relation- 
ship to Marius, but, upon the intercession of friends, Sulla spared 
him ; as he did so, however, he said warningly, " There is in that 
boy many a Marius." 

The number of victims of these proscriptions has been handed 
down as forty-seven hundred. Almost all of these must have been 
men of wealth or of special distinction on account of their activity 



1 88 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§281 

in public affairs. The property of the proscribed was confiscated 
and sold at public auction, or virtually given away by Sulla to 
his favorites. The bases of some of the most colossal fortunes 
that we hear of a little after this were laid during these times of 
proscription and robbery. 

This reign of terror bequeathed to later times a terrible "legacy 
of hatred and fear." Its awful scenes haunted the Romans for 
generations, and at every crisis in the affairs of the commonwealth 
the public mind was thrown into a state of painful apprehension 
lest there should be a repetition of these frightful days of Sulla. 

By a decree of the Senate Sulla was now made dictator during 
his own good pleasure. After having exercised the unlimited power 
of his office for three years, Sulla, to the surprise of everybody, 
suddenly resigned the dictatorship and went into retirement. He 
died the year following his abdication (78 B.C.). One important 
result of the rule of Sulla as an absolute dictator was the accustom- 
ing of the people to the idea of the rule of a single man. His short 
dictatorship was the prelude to the reign of the permanent 
imperator. 

281. Spartacus; War of the Gladiators (73-71 B.C.). About a 
decade after the proscriptions of Sulla, Italy was the scene of 
fresh troubles. Gladiatorial combats had become at this time the 
favorite sport of the amphitheater. At Capua was a sort of train- 
ing school from which skilled fighters were hired out for public or 
private entertainments. In this seminary was a Thracian slave, 
known by the name of Spartacus, who incited his companions to 
revolt. The insurgents fled to the crater of Vesuvius and made that 
their stronghold. There they were joined by gladiators from other 
schools, and by slaves and discontented persons from every quarter. 
Their number at length increased to a hundred and fifty thousand 
men. For three years they defied the power of Rome. But at 
length Spartacus himself was killed and the insurrection crushed. 

282. Growth of Piracy in the Mediterranean ; War with the 
Pirates (78-66 B.C.). Another shameful commentary on the in- 
capacity of the government of the aristocrats was the growth of 
piracy in the Mediterranean waters during their rule. It is true 



§283] POMPEY IN THE EAST 189 

that this was an evil which had been growing for a long time. 
The Romans, through their conquest of the countries fringing the 
Mediterranean, had destroyed not only the governments that had 
maintained order on the land, but at the same time had destroyed 
the fleets, as in the case of Carthage, which, since the days when 
the rising Greek cities suppressed piracy in the iEgean Sea, had 
policed the Mediterranean and kept its ship routes clear of corsairs. 

The Mediterranean, thus left practically without patrol, was 
swarming with pirates, for the Roman conquests in Africa, Spain, 
and especially in Greece and Asia Minor, had caused thousands 
of adventurous spirits in those maritime countries to take to their 
ships and seek a livelihood by preying upon the commerce of the 
seas. The pirates even ravaged the shores of Italy itself. They 
carried off merchants and travelers from the Appian Way and held 
them for ransom. At last they began to intercept the grain ships 
of Sicily and Africa and thereby threatened Rome with starvation. 
Corn rose to famine prices. 

The Romans now bestirred themselves. In the year 67 b.c. 
Gnaeus Pompey, a rising young general of the aristocrats, was 
invested with dictatorial power for three years over the Mediter- 
ranean and all its coasts for fifty miles inland. He quickly swept 
the pirates from the sea, captured their strongholds in Cilicia, and 
settled the twenty thousand prisoners that fell into his hands in 
colonies in Asia Minor and Greece. His vigorous conduct of this 
campaign brought him great honor and reputation. 

283. Pompey in the East ; the Death of Mithradates (63 B.C.). 
Pompey had not yet ended the war with the pirates before he was 
given, by a vote of the people, charge of the war against Mith- 
radates, who was now again in arms against Rome. In a great 
battle in Lesser Armenia Pompey almost annihilated the army of 
Mithradates. The king fled from the field, and soon afterwards, 
to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, took his own life. 
His death removed one of the most formidable enemies that Rome 
had ever encountered. Hamilcar, Hannibal, and Mithradates were 
the three great names that the Romans always pronounced with 
respect and dread. 



igo THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§ 284 

284. The Conspiracy of Catiline (64-62 B.C.)- While the legions 
were absent from Italy with Pompey in the East a most daring 
conspiracy against the government was formed at Rome. Catiline, 
a ruined spendthrift, had gathered a large company of profligate 
young nobles, weighed down with debts and desperate like himself, 
and had deliberately planned to murder the consuls and the chief 
men of the state and to plunder and burn the capital. The proscrip- 
tions of Sulla were to be renewed and all debts were to be canceled. 

Fortunately, all the plans of the conspirators were revealed to 
the consul Cicero, the great orator. The Senate immediately 
clothed the consuls with dictatorial power with the usual formula 
that they "should take care that the republic received no harm." 
Then in the Senate chamber, with Catiline himself present, Cicero 
exposed the whole conspiracy in a famous philippic, known as 
The First Oration against Catiline. The senators shrank from the 
conspirator and left the seats about him empty. After a feeble 
effort to reply to Cicero, overwhelmed by a sense of his guilt, and 
the cries of "traitor" and "parricide" from the senators, Catiline 
fled from the chamber and hurried out of the city to the camp of 
his followers in Etruria. In a desperate battle fought near Pistoria 
he was slain with many of his followers. His head was borne as 
a trophy to Rome. 

285. Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey: the So-called "First 
Triumvirate" (60 B.C.). Although the conspiracy of Catiline had 
failed, still it was very easy to foresee that the days of liberty at 
Rome were over. From this time forward the government was 
practically in the hands of ambitious leaders or of corrupt com- 
binations and "rings." Events gather about a few great names, 
and the annals of the Republic become biographical rather than 
historical. 

There were now in the state three men — Caesar, Crassus, and 
Pompey — who were destined to shape affairs. Gaius Julius Caesar 
was born in the year ioo b.c. Although descended from an old 
patrician family, still he had identified himself with the democratic 
party. In every way he courted the favor of the multitude. He 
lavished enormous sums upon public games and tables. His 



§ 286] CESAR'S CONQUEST OF GAUL 191 

popularity was unbounded. A successful campaign in Spain had 
already made known to himself, as well as to others, his genius 
as a commander. 

Marcus Licinius Crassus belonged to the senatorial or aristo- 
cratic party. He owed his influence to his enormous wealth, being 
one of the richest men in the Roman world. His property was 
estimated at 7100 talents (about $8,875,000). 

With Gnaeus Pompey and his achievements we are already 
familiar. His influence throughout the Roman world was great ; 
for in settling the countries he subdued he had filled the offices 
with his friends and adherents. This patronage had secured for 
him incalculable authority in the provinces. 

What is commonly known as the " First Triumvirate " rested on 
the genius of Caesar, the wealth of Crassus, and the reputation of 
Pompey. It was a private arrangement entered into by these 
three men for the purpose of securing to themselves the control 
of public affairs. Caesar was the manager of the "ring." Through 
the aid of his colleagues he secured the consulship. 

286. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (58-51 B.C.). Directly after 
his consulship Caesar was commissioned to govern the provinces 
of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, together with Illyricum. 
Already doubtless he was revolving in his mind plans for seizing 
supreme power. Beyond the Alps the Gallic and German tribes 
were in restless movement. He saw there a grand field for military 
exploits, which should gain for him such prestige as in other fields 
had been won and was now enjoyed by Pompey. With this 
achieved, and with a veteran army devoted to his interests, he 
might hope easily to attain that position at the head of affairs 
toward which his ambition was urging him. 

In the spring of 58 B.C. alarming intelligence from beyond the 
Alps caused Caesar to hasten from Rome into Transalpine Gaul. 
Now began a series of eight brilliant campaigns directed against 
the various tribes of Gaul, Germany, and Britain. In his admirable 
Commentaries Caesar himself has left us a faithful and graphic 
account of all the memorable marches, battles, and sieges that 
filled the years between 58 and 51 b.c. 



192 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§287 

The year 55 b.c. marked two notable achievements. Early in 
the spring of this year Caesar constructed a bridge across the Rhine 
and led his legions against the Germans in their native woods and 
swamps. In the autumn of the same year he crossed the channel 
that separates the mainland from Britain, and after maintaining 
a foothold upon that island for two weeks withdrew his legions into 
Gaul for the winter. The following season he made another 
invasion of Britain, but, after some encounters with the fierce 
barbarians, recrossed to the mainland without having established 
any permanent garrisons in the island. Almost one hundred years 
passed away before the natives of Britain were again molested by 
the Romans. 

Great enthusiasm was aroused at Rome by Caesar's victories 
over the Gauls. "Let the Alps sink," exclaimed Cicero; "the 
gods raised them to shelter Italy from the barbarians ; they are 
now no longer needed." 

287. Results of the Gallic Wars. One good result of the Gallic 
wars of Caesar was the Romanizing of Gaul. The country was 
opened to Roman traders and settlers, who carried with them 
the language, customs, and arts of Italy. This Romanization of 
Gaul meant the adding of another to the number of Latin nations 
that were to arise from the break-up of the Roman Empire. There 
can be little doubt that if Caesar had not conquered Gaul it would 
have been overrun by the Germans, and would ultimately have 
become simply an extension of Germany. There would then have 
been no great Latin nation north of the Alps and the Pyrenees. 
It is difficult to imagine what European history would be like if 
the French nation, with its semi-Italian temperament, instincts, 
and traditions, had never come into existence. 

Another result of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul was the checking 
of the migratory movements of the German tribes, which gave 
Graeco-Roman civilization time to become thoroughly rooted not 
only in Gaul but also in Spain and other lands. 

288. Rivalry between Caesar and Pompey ; Caesar crosses the 
Rubicon (49 B.C.). While Caesar was in Gaul Crassus was leading 
an army against the Parthians in the East, hoping to rival there 



§ 289] CESAR MASTER OF THE ROMAN WORLD 193 

the brilliant conquests of Caesar. But his army was almost 
annihilated by the enemy, and he himself was slain (54 B.C.). 

The world now belonged to Caesar and Pompey. A struggle 
between them was inevitable. While Caesar was carrying on his 
campaigns in Gaul, Pompey was at Rome watching jealously the 
growing reputation of his rival. He strove by a princely liberality 
to win the affections of the common people. He gave magnificent 
games and set public tables, and when the interest of the people 
in the sports of the Circus flagged he entertained them with 
gladiatorial combats. 

In a similar manner Caesar strengthened himself with the people 
for the struggle which he plainly foresaw. He sought in every 
way to ingratiate himself with the Gauls ; he increased the pay 
of his soldiers, conferred the privileges of Roman citizenship upon 
the inhabitants of different cities, and sent to Rome enormous sums 
of gold to be expended in the erection of theaters and other public 
structures, and in the celebration of games and shows that should 
rival in magnificence those given by Pompey. 

The Senate, favoring Pompey, made him sole consul for one 
year, which was about the same thing as making him dictator, and 
issued a decree that Caesar should resign his office and disband 
his Gallic legions by a stated day. The crisis had now come. 
Caesar ordered his legions to hasten from Gaul into Italy. Without 
waiting for their arrival, at the head of a small body of veterans 
that he had with him at Ravenna, he crossed the Rubicon, a little 
stream that marked the boundary of his province. This was a 
declaration of war. As he plunged into the river, he exclaimed, 
"The die is cast! " 

289. Caesar becomes Sole Master of the Roman World. As 
Caesar marched southward, one city after another threw open its 
gates to him ; legion after legion went over to his standard. 
Pompey, with a few legions, fled to Greece. Within sixty days 
Caesar had made himself master of all Italy. His moderation won 
all classes to his side. Many had looked to see the terrible scenes 
of the days of Marius and Sulla reenacted. Caesar, however, soon 
gave assurance that life and property should be held sacred. 




194 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§290 

With order restored in Italy, and with Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain 
brought under his authority, Caesar was free to turn his forces 
against Pompey in the East. The armies of the rivals met upon 
the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey's forces were cut to 
pieces. He himself fled from the field and escaped to Egypt. 
Just as he was landing he was assassinated. 

Other campaigns and vic- 
tories followed both in the 
^ - East and in the West, and 

then Caesar was sole lord of 
the Roman world. He re- 
frained from taking the title 
of king, but he assumed the 
purple robe, the insignia of 
royalty, and caused his effigy 
t Wu, l^jW to be stamped, after the man- 

ner of sovereigns, on the 
public coins. His statue was 
significantly given a place 
along with those of the seven 
kings of early Rome. He 
^> was invested with all the 

Fig. 68. Julius Cesar. (From a bust offices and dignities of the 
in the Museum at Naples) state . The Senate made him 

perpetual dictator (44 B.C.), 
and conferred upon him the powers of censor, consul, and tribune, 
with the titles of Pontifex Maximus and Imperator. Thus, though 
not a king in name, Caesar's actual position at the head of the state 
was that of an absolute ruler. 

290. Caesar as a Statesman. Caesar was great not only as a 
general but also as a statesman. He had great plans which em- 
braced the whole world that Rome had conquered. A chief aim 
of his was to establish between the different classes of the Empire 
equality of rights, to place Italy and the provinces on the same 
footing, to blend the various races and peoples into a real nation, — 
in a word, to carry to completion that great work of making all 



§291] THE DEATH OF CESAR 195 

the world Roman which had been begun in the earliest times. To 
this end he established numerous colonies in the provinces and 
settled in them the poorer citizens of the capital. With a liberality 
that astonished and offended many, he admitted to the Senate sons 
of freedmen, and particularly representative men from among the 
Gauls, and conferred upon individual provincials, and upon entire 
classes and communities in the provinces, the partial or full rights 
of the city. His action here marks an epoch in the history of 
Rome. The immunities and privileges of the city had never 
hitherto been conferred, save in exceptional cases, upon any 
peoples other than those of the Italian race. Caesar threw the gates 
of the city wide open to the non-Italian peoples of the provinces. 
Thus was foreshadowed the day when all freemen throughout the 
whole Empire should be Roman in name and privilege (see Table, 
p. 205). 

As Pontifex Maximus, Caesar reformed the calendar so as to 
bring the festivals once more in their proper seasons, and provided 
against further confusion by making the year consist of three 
hundred and sixty-five days, with an added day for every fourth 
or leap year. This is what is called the Julian Calendar. 1 

Besides these achievements, Caesar projected many other under- 
takings which the abrupt termination of his life prevented his 
carrying into execution. 

291. The Death of Caesar ( 44 B.C.). Caesar had his bitter per- 
sonal enemies, who never ceased to plot his downfall. There 
were, too, sincere lovers of the old Republic to whom he was the 
destroyer of republican liberties. The impression began to prevail 
that he was aiming to make himself king. A crown was several 
times offered him in public by the consul Mark Antony ; but, 
seeing the manifest displeasure of the people, he each time 
pushed it aside. Yet there is little doubt that secretly he desired it. 
It was reported that he proposed to rebuild the walls of Troy, the 
fabled cradle of the Roman race, and make that ancient capital 

1 This calendar, which was based on the old Egyptian calendar (sect. 30), was in 
general use in Europe until the year 1582, when it was reformed by Pope Gregory 
XIII and became what is known as the Gregorian Calendar. This in time came to be 
used in almost all Christian countries. A few still retain the Julian Calendar. 



196 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§292 

the seat of the new Roman Empire. Others professed to believe 
that the arts and charms of the Egyptian Cleopatra, who had 
borne him a son at Rome, would entice him to make Alexandria 
the center of the proposed kingdom. So many, out of love for 
Rome and the old Republic, were led to enter into a conspiracy 
against the life of Caesar with those who sought to rid themselves 
of the dictator for other and personal reasons. 

The Ides (the 15th day) of March, 44 B.C., upon which day the 
Senate convened, witnessed the assassination. Seventy or eighty 
conspirators, headed by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus, were 
concerned in the plot. The soothsayers must have had some 
knowledge of the plans of the conspirators, for they had warned 
Caesar to "beware of the Ides of March." No sooner had he 
entered the hall where the Senate assembled that day, and taken 
his seat, than the conspirators crowded about him as if to present 
a petition. Upon a signal from one of their number their daggers 
were drawn. For a moment Caesar defended himself ; but seeing 
Brutus, upon whom he had lavished gifts and favors, among the 
conspirators, he is said to have exclaimed reproachfully, "Et tu, 
Brute /" (Thou, too, Brutus ! ) and then to have drawn his mantle 
over his face. 

The Romans had killed many of their best men and cut short 
their work ; but never had they killed such a man as Caesar. He 
was the greatest man their race had yet produced or was destined 
ever to produce. 

Caesar's work was left all incomplete. What makes it histori- 
cally important is that in his reforms Caesar drew the broad lines 
which his successors followed, and indicated the principles on 
which the government of the future must be based. 

292. The Second Triumvirate (43 B.C.) ; the Death of Cicero. 
Antony, the friend and secretary of Caesar, had gained possession 
of his will and papers, and now, under color of carrying out the 
testament of the dictator according to a decree of the Senate, 
entered upon a course of high-handed usurpation. Very soon he 
was exercising all the powers of a real dictator. u The tyrant is 
dead," said Cicero, "but the tyranny still lives." 



§ 292] 



THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE 



19: 



To what lengths Antony would have gone in his career of 
usurpation it is difficult to say, had he not been opposed at this 
point by Gaius Octavius, the young grand-nephew of Julius Csesar, 
and the one whom he had named in his will as his heir and 
adopted as his son. Upon the Senate's declaring in favor of 
Octavius, civil war immediately 
broke out between him on the 
one hand and Antony and Lepi- 
dus (one of Caesar's old lieuten- 
ants) on the other. After several 
indecisive battles between the 
forces of the rival competitors, 
Octavius proposed to Antony and 
Lepidus a reconciliation. The 
outcome of a conference was a 
league known as the Second 
Triumvirate (43 B.C.). 

The plans of the triumvirs 
were infamous. They first divided 
the world among themselves : 
Octavius was to have the gov- 
ernment of the West ; Antony, 
that of the East ; while to Lepi- 
dus fell the control of Africa. 
A general proscription, such as 
had marked the coming to power 

of Sulla, was then resolved upon. It was agreed that each 
should give up to the assassin such friends of his as had incurred 
the ill-will of either of the other triumvirs. Under this arrange- 
ment Octavius gave up his friend Cicero, — who had incurred the 
hatred of Antony by opposing his schemes, — and allowed his 
name to be put at the head of the list of the proscribed. 

The friends of the orator urged him to flee the country. His 
attendants were hurrying him, half unwilling, toward the coast, 
when his pursuers came up and dispatched him in the litter in 
which he was being carried. His head was taken to Rome and 




Fig. 69. Cicero. (Madrid) 



198 THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC [§293 

set up in the Forum. The right hand of the victim — the hand that 
had penned the eloquent orations — was nailed to the Rostra. 1 

Cicero was but one victim among many hundreds. All the 
dreadful scenes of the days of Sulla were reenacted. Three hun- 
dred senators and two thousand knights were murdered. The 
estates of the wealthy were confiscated and conferred by the 
triumvirs upon their friends and favorites. 

293. Last Struggle of the Republic at Philippi (42 B.C.). 
The friends of the old Republic and the enemies of the triumvirs 
were meanwhile rallying in the East. Brutus and Cassius, who 
had fled from Rome after the assassination of Caesar, were the 
animating spirits. Octavius and Antony, as soon as they had dis- 
posed of their enemies in Italy, crossed the Adriatic into Greece 
to disperse the forces of the republicans there. At Philippi, in 
Thrace, the hostile armies met. The new levies of the liberators 
were cut to pieces, and both Brutus and Cassius, believing the 
cause of the Republic lost, committed suicide. It was, indeed, the 
last effort of the Republic. The history of the events that lie 
between the action at Philippi and the establishment of the Empire 
is simply a record of the struggles among the triumvirs for the 
possession of the prize of supreme power. Lepidus was at length 
expelled from the triumvirate, and then again the Roman world, 
as in the times of Caesar and Pompey, was in the hands of two 
masters, — Antony in the East and Octavius in the West. 

294. The Battle of Actium (31 B.C.). Affairs could not long 
continue in their present course. Antony had put away his faithful 
wife Octavia for the beautiful Cleopatra. 2 It was whispered at 
Rome, and not without truth, that he proposed to make Alexandria 
the capital of the Roman world, and announce Caesarion, son of 
Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, as the heir of the Empire. All Rome 

1 The speakers' stage in the Forum. It was so called because decorated with the 
beaks {rostra) of captured war galleys. 

2 After the battle of Philippi Antony went into Asia for the purpose of settling the 
affairs of the provinces and vassal states there. At Tarsus, in Cilicia, he met Cleopatra, 
the famous queen of Egypt. Antony was completely fascinated, as had been the great 
Caesar before him, by the witchery of the " Serpent of the Nile." Enslaved by her 
enchantments and charmed by her brilliant wit, in the pleasure of her company he forgot 
all else — ambition and honor and country. 



§ 294] THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM 199 

was stirred. It was evident that a struggle was at hand in which 
the question for decision would be whether the West should rule 
the East, or the East rule the West. All eyes were instinctively 
turned to Octavius as the defender of Italy and the supporter of 
the sovereignty of the Eternal City. 

Both parties made the most gigantic preparations for the inevi- 
table conflict. Octavius met the combined fleets of Antony and 
Cleopatra just off the promontory of Actium, on the western 
coast of Greece. While the issue of the battle was yet undecided, 
Cleopatra turned her galley in flight. Antony, as soon as he per- 
ceived the withdrawal of Cleopatra, forgot all else and followed in 
her track with a swift galley. Overtaking the fleeing queen, the 
infatuated man was received aboard her vessel and became her 
partner in the disgraceful flight. The abandoned fleet and army 
surrendered to Octavius. 1 The conqueror was now sole master of 
the civilized world. From this decisive battle (31 b.c.) are usually 
dated the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire. 

References. Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus and Julius Casar. Cicero, 
Letters to Atticus (Loeb Classical Library), bk. vii, letters 1-26. Ferrero, G., 
The Greatness ana" the Decline of Rome, vols, i-iii ; vol. iv (chaps, i-vi). Meri- 
VALE, C, The Fall of the Roman Republic. Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman 
History, pp. 201-258, 333-397- Gilman, A., Story of Rome, chaps, xii, xiii. 
Mommsen, T., vol. iv (read chap, xi, "The Old Republic and the New 
Monarchy"). Oman, C, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Republic. Strachan- 
Davidson, J. L., Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic. Fowler, W. W., 
Julius Cccsar. 

1 Octavius pursued Antony to Egypt, where the latter, deserted by his army and in- 
formed by a messenger from the false queen that she was dead, committed suicide. 
Cleopatra then sought to enslave Octavius with her charms ; but failing in this, and be- 
coming convinced that he proposed to take her to Rome to grace his triumph, she took 
her own life, being in the thirty-eighth year of her age. With the death of Cleopatra 
the noted dynasty of the Egyptian Ptolemies came to an end. Egypt was henceforth a 
province of the Roman state. 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE AND THE 

PRINCIPATE OF AUGUSTUS CiESAR 

(31 B.C.-A.D. 14) 

295. The Character of the Imperial Government. The hun- 
dred years of strife which ended with the battle of Actium left the 
Roman Republic, exhausted and helpless, in the hands of one 
wise enough and strong enough to remold its crumbling fragments 
in such a manner that the state, which seemed ready to fall to 
pieces, might prolong its existence for another five hundred years. 
It was a great work thus to create anew, as it were, out of anarchy 
and chaos, a political fabric that should exhibit such elements of 
perpetuity and strength. "The establishment of the Roman Em- 
pire," says Merivale, "was, after all, the greatest political work 
that any human being ever wrought. The achievements of Alex- 
ander, of Caesar, of Charlemagne, of Napoleon are not to be 
compared with it for a moment." 

Soon after his return from the East, Octavius laid down the ex- 
traordinary powers which he, as sole master of the legions, had 
been exercising. Then the Senate, acting doubtless in accordance 
with a previous understanding or the known wishes of Octavius, 
reinvested him with virtually the same powers but with republican 
titles ; for, mindful of the fate of Julius Caesar, Octavius saw to 
it that the really absolute power which he received under the new 
arrangements was veiled under the forms of the old Republic. He 
did not take the title of king. He knew how hateful to the people 
that name had been since the expulsion of the Tarquins. Nor did 
he take the title of dictator, a name that since the time of Sulla 
had been almost as intolerable to the people as that of king. But 
he adopted or accepted the title of Imperator, — whence the name 
Emperor, — a title which, although it carried with it the absolute 



§295] 



CHARACTER OF THE GOVERNMENT 



201 



authority of the commander of the legions, still had clinging 
to it no odious memories. He also received from the Senate 
the honorary 
surname of 
Augustus, a 
title that hith- 
erto had been 
sacred to the gods, 
and hence was free 
from all sinister asso- 
ciations. A monument of 
this act was erected in the cal- 
endar. It was decreed by the 
Senate that the sixth month of 
the Roman year should be 
called Augustus (whence our 
August) in commemoration of 
the Imperator, an act in imita- 
tion of that by which the pre- 
ceding month had been given 
the name Julius (whence our 
July) in honor of Julius Caesar. 
Common usage also bestowed 
upon Octavius the name of 
Princeps, which was only a 
designation of courtesy and dig- 
nity and which simply pointed 
out him who bore it as the 
" first citizen " of a free republic. 
And as Octavius was careful 
not to wound the sensibilities 
of the lovers of the old Repub- 
lic by assuming any title that 
in any way suggested regal au- 
thority and prerogative, so was he careful not to arouse their 
opposition by abolishing any of the republican offices or assemblies. 




Fig. 70. Augustus. (Vatican 

Museum) 

This statue of Augustus is regarded as one 

of the best of Roman portraits 



202 AUGUSTUS OESAR [§296 

He allowed all the old magistracies and the popular assemblies to 
exist as heretofore ; but he himself absorbed and exercised the 
most important part of their powers and functions. 1 

The Senate still existed, but it was shorn of all real independence 
by the predominating influence of its first member, the Princeps. 
Octavius endeavored to raise the body to a higher standard. He 
reduced the number of senators — which had been raised by 
Antony to one thousand — to six hundred, and struck from 
the rolls the names of unworthy members and of obstinate 
republicans. 

We may summarize all these changes by saying that the mon- 
archy abolished five hundred years before this was now slowly 
rising again amidst the old forms of the Republic. This is what 
was actually taking place ; for the chief powers and prerogatives 
of the ancient king, which during the republican period had been 
gradually broken up and lodged in the hands of a great number 
of magistrates, colleges, and assemblies, were now being once more 
gathered up in the hands of a single man. This drift toward the 
unrestrained rule of a single person is the essence of the constitu- 
tional history of Rome for the first three centuries of the Empire ; 
by the end of that period the concentration of all power in the 
hands of the Princeps was complete, and the veiled monarchy of 
Octavius emerges in the unveiled oriental monarchy of Diocletian 
(sect. 311). 

296. The Government of the Provinces. The revolution that 
brought in the Empire effected a great improvement in the condi- 
tion of the provincials. The government of all those provinces that 
were in an unsettled state and that needed the presence of a large 
military force Augustus 1 withdrew from the Senate and took the 
management of their affairs in his own hands. These were known 
as the provinces of Ccesar. Instead of these countries being ruled 
by practically irresponsible proconsuls and propretors, they were 

1 The consuls were generally nominated by Augustus, and in order that a large 
number of his friends and favorites might be amused with the dignity, the term of 
office was reduced to a shorter period. At a later time the length of the consulate was 
shortened to two or three months. 

2 From this on we shall refer to Octavius by this his honorary surname. 



§ 297] LITERATURE UNDER AUGUSTUS 203 

henceforth ruled by legates of the Emperor, who were removable 
at his will and answerable to him for the faithful and honest 
discharge of the duties of their offices. 

The more tranquil provinces were still left under the control of 
the Senate and were known as public provinces. These also prof- 
ited by the change, since the Emperor extended his care to them, 
and, as the judge of last appeal, righted wrongs and punished 
flagrant offenders against right and justice. 

297. The Defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius 
(a.d. 9). The reign of Augustus was marked by one of the most 
terrible disasters that ever befell the Roman legions. The general 
Quintilius Varus, leading an army of about twenty thousand men 
against the Germans beyond the Rhine, in the almost pathless 
depths of the Teutoburg Wood was surprised by the barbarians 
under their brave chieftain Arminius, 1 and his army destroyed. 

This victory of Arminius over the Romans was an event of great 
significance in the history of European civilization. The Germans 
were on the point of being completely subjugated and put in the 
way of being Romanized, as the Celts of Gaul had already been. 
Had this occurred, had Germany become a Latin nation, the 
whole course of European history would have been changed. 
Further, among these barbarians were our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. 
Had Rome succeeded in exterminating or enslaving them, Britain, 
as Creasy says, might never have received the name of England, 
and the great English nation might never have come into existence. 

298. Literature and the Arts under Augustus. The reign of 
Augustus lasted forty-four years, from 31 b.c. to a.d. 14. Although 
the government of Augustus, as we have learned, was disturbed by 
some troubles upon the frontiers, still, never before, perhaps, had 
the civilized world enjoyed so long a period of general rest from 
the turmoil of war. Three times during this auspicious reign the 
gates of the Temple of Janus at Rome, which were open in time 
of war and closed in time of peace, were shut. Only twice before 
during the existence of the city had they been closed, so con- 
stantly had the Roman people been engaged in war. 

1 His name may have been Hermann or Armin ; the Romans wrote it Arminius. 



204 AUGUSTUS CESAR [§299 

This long repose from the strife that had filled all the preceding 
centuries was favorable to the upspringing of literature and art. 
Under the patronage of the Emperor and that of his favorite 
minister Maecenas, poets and writers flourished and made this the 
Golden Age of Latin literature. The great names in the literature 
of the period are those of Vergil, Horace, Ovid, and Livy. 

Augustus was also a munificent patron of architecture and art. 
He adorned the capital with many splendid structures, including 
temples, theaters, baths, and aqueducts. He said proudly, "I 
found Rome a city of brick ; I left it a city of marble." The 
population of the city at this time was probably about one million. 

299. The Death and Deification of Augustus. In the year 
14 of the Christian era Augustus died, having reached the seventy- 
sixth year of his age. By decree of the Senate, divine worship was 
accorded to him and temples were erected in his honor. 

The cult of Augustus had developed, particularly in the Orient, 
while he was yet living. At first flush this worship of Caesar seems 
to us strange and impious. But it will not seem so if we put 
ourselves at the point of view of the ancients. In the Orient the 
king had very generally been looked upon as in a sense divine. 
Thus in Egypt the Pharaoh was believed to be of the very race 
of the gods. It was natural, then, that the subjects of Rome in 
the Eastern provinces should look upon the head of the Empire as 
one lifted above ordinary mortals and possessed of divine qual- 
ities. This way of thinking caused the provincials of the Orient 
to become sincere and zealous worshipers in the temples and before 
the altars of the "divine Caesar." 

From the East the custom of worshiping the Emperor spread to 
the West ; only at Rome itself it remained usual to wait till after 
his death. This deification of the Caesars had far-reaching conse- 
quences, as we shall see ; since at this very time there was 
springing up in a remote corner of the Empire a new religion 
with which the imperial cult must necessarily come into violent 
conflict. For it was in the midst of the happy reign of Augustus, 
when peace prevailed throughout the civilized world, that Christ 
was born in Bethlehem of Judea. 



§299] TABLE OF ROMAN CITIZENS 205 

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF ROMAN CITIZENS AT 
DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE REPUBLIC AND UNDER 

THE EARLY EMPIRE 1 

Citizens of 
Military Age 
Under the later kings (Mommsen's estimate) . . . . 20,000 

338 b.c 165,000 

293 B -c. • - • 262,322 

251 B-C 279,797 

220 B.C 270,213 

204 B.C. 2I4,000 2 

164 B.C 327,022 

"SB.C. . 394,33 6 

70 B.C 900,000 

27 B.C 4,063,000 3 

8 b.c 4,233,000 

A.D. 13 4,937,000 

A.D. 47 (under Claudius) 6,944,000 

References. Ferrero, G., The Greatness and Decline of Rome, vols, iv 
(chaps, vii-xi), v. Inge, W. R., Society in 'Rome under the Ccesars, chap, i, 
" Religion " (deals with the decay of the Roman religion and the establishment 
at the capital of oriental cults). Capes, W. W., The Early Empire, chap, i, 
" Augustus." Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman Histo-iy, bk. v, chap. iii. 
Bury, J. B., The Roman Empire (Student's Series), pp. 1-163. Firth, J. B., 
Augustus Ccesar. Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of the World, chap, v, " Victory 
of Arminius over the Roman Legions under Varus, a.d. 9." Friedlander, 
L., Roman Life and Manners, vol. i, pp. 70-97. Davis, W. S., The Influence 
of Wealth in Imperial Rome, pp. 80-105. 

1 These figures illustrate what is perhaps the most important matter in Roman 
history, namely, the gradual admission of aliens to the full rights of the city until every 
freeman in the civilized world had become a citizen of Rome. 

2 The falling off from the number of the preceding census of 220 B.C. was a result 
of the Hannibalic War. 

3 These figures and those of the enumerations for 8 B.C. and a.d. 13 are from the 
Monumentum Ancyrarmm. The increased number given by the census of 70 B. c over 
that of 115 B.C. registers the result of the admission to the city of the Italians at the 
end of the Social War (sect. 276). The tremendous leap upwards of the figures between 
70 and 27 B.C. is probably to be explained not wholly by the admission during this 
period of aliens to the franchise but also, possibly, by the failure of the censors of the 
republican period to include in their enumerations the Roman citizens living in places 
remote from the capital. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

FROM TIBERIUS TO THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN 
(A.D. 14-284) 

300. Principate of Tiberius (a.d. 14-37). Tiberius, the adopted 
stepson of Augustus, became his successor. During the first years 
of his reign he used his practically unrestrained authority with 
moderation, and even to the last his government of the provinces 
was just and beneficent. 

But unfortunately Tiberius was of morose, suspicious, and 
jealous nature, and the opposition which he experienced in the 
capital caused him, in his contest with his political and personal 
enemies, soon to institute, there a most high-handed tyranny. 
Appointing as his chief minister and as commander of the pretorian 
guard 1 one Sejanus, a person of the lowest and most corrupt life, 
he retired to Capreae, an islet in the Bay of Naples, and left to 
this man the management of affairs at the capital. For a time 
Sejanus ruled at Rome very much according to his own will. No 
man's life was safe. He even grew so bold as to plan the assassi- 
nation of the Emperor himself. His designs, however, became 
known to Tiberius, and the infamous and disloyal minister was 
arrested and put to death. After the execution of his minister 
Tiberius ruled more despotically than before. Many sought refuge 
from his tyranny in suicide. 

It was in the midst of the reign of Tiberius that, in a remote 
province of the Roman Empire, the Saviour was crucified. Ani- 
mated by an unparalleled missionary spirit, his followers traversed 
the length and breadth of the Empire, preaching everywhere 
the new teachings. Men's loss of faith in the gods of the old 

1 This was a corps of select soldiers which had been created by Augustus, and 
which was designed as a bodyguard to the Emperor. It numbered about 10,000 men, 
and was given a permanent camp near one of the city gates. It soon became a 
formidable power in the state and made and unmade emperors at will. 

206 



§301] RULE OF NERO 207 

mythologies, the softening and liberalizing influence of Greek cul- 
ture, the unification of the whole civilized world under a single 
government, the widespread suffering and the inexpressible weari- 
ness of the oppressed and servile classes, — all these things had 
prepared the soil for the seed of the new doctrines. In less than 
three centuries the pagan Empire had become Christian not only 
in name but also very largely in fact. 

301. Rule of Nero (a.d. 54-68). Nero, the third Emperor after 
Tiberius, was fortunate in having for his preceptor the great 
philosopher and moralist Seneca (sect. 344) ; but never was teacher 
more unfortunate in his pupil. For five years Nero, under the 
influence of Seneca and Burrhus, the latter the commander of the 
pretorians, ruled with moderation and equity ; then he gradually 
broke away from the guidance of his tutor Seneca, and entered 
upon a career filled with crimes of almost incredible enormity. 

It was in the tenth year of his reign (a.d. 64) that the so-called 
"Great Fire" laid more than half of Rome in ashes. It was 
rumored that Nero had ordered the conflagration to be lighted in 
order to clear the ground so that he could rebuild the city on a 
more magnificent plan, and that from the roof of his palace he 
had enjoyed the spectacle and amused himself by singing a poem 
of his own composition entitled the Sack of Troy. To turn atten- 
tion from himself, Nero accused the Christians of having conspired 
to burn the city. The persecution that followed was one of the 
most cruel recorded in the history of the Church. Many victims 
were covered with pitch and burned at night to serve as torches 
in the imperial gardens. Tradition preserves the names of the 
apostles Peter and Paul as victims of this persecution. 

The Emperor was extravagant and consequently always in need 
of money, which he secured through murders and confiscations. 
Among his victims was his old preceptor Seneca, who was im- 
mensely rich. On the charge of treason, Nero condemned him to 
death and confiscated his estate. 

At last the armies began to rebel, and the Senate declared Nero 
a public enemy and condemned him to death by scourging. To 
avoid this, aided by a servant, he took his own life. 



208 



FROM TIBERIUS TO DIOCLETIAN 



[§302 



302. Vespasian (a.d. 69-79). A short troublous period followed 
the reign of Nero and then the imperial purple was assumed by 
Flavius Vespasian, the old and beloved commander of the legions 
in Palestine. One of the most memorable events of Vespasian's 
reign was the capture and destruction of Jerusalem. After one of 



ggSte^ 




Fig. 71. Triumphal Procession from the Arch of Titus. (From 

a photograph) 
Showing the seven-branched candlestick and other trophies from the temple at Jerusalem 

the most harassing sieges recorded in history, the city was taken 
by Titus, son of Vespasian. A vast multitude of Jews who had 
crowded into the city — it was the season of the Passover — 
perished. In imitation of Nebuchadnezzar, Titus robbed the 
temple of its sacred utensils and bore them away as trophies. 
Upon the triumphal arch at Rome that bears his name may be 
seen at the present day the sculptured representation of the 
seven-branched golden candlestick, which was one of the memo- 
rials of the war. 

After a most prosperous reign of ten years Vespasian died 
a.d. 70, the first Emperor after Augustus who had not met with 
a violent death. 



§303] REIGN OF TITUS 209 

303. Titus (a.d. 79-81 ). In a short reign of two years Titus won 
the title of "the Friend and the Delight of Mankind." He was 
unwearied in acts of benevolence and in bestowal of favors. His 
reign was signalized by two great disasters. The first was a con- 
flagration at Rome, which was almost as calamitous as the Great 
Fire in the reign of Nero. The second was the destruction, by an 
eruption of Vesuvius, of the Campanian cities of Pompeii and 
Herculaneum. The cities were buried beneath showers of cinders, 
ashes, and streams of volcanic mud. Pliny the Elder, the great 
naturalist, venturing too near the mountain to investigate the 
phenomenon, lost his life. 1 

304. The Five Good Emperors. The emperors Nerva, Trajan, 
Hadrian, and the two Antonines, whose united reigns covered the 
later years of the first and the greater part of the second century 
of the Christian era, were elected by the Senate, which during this 
period assumed something of its former influence in the affairs of 
the Empire. The wise and beneficent administration of the gov- 
ernment by these rulers won for them the distinction of being 
called "the five good emperors." This period probably marks the 
high tide of civilization in ancient times. 

Nerva, who was an aged senator and an ex-consul, ruled pater- 
nally. He died after a short reign of sixteen months, and the 
scepter passed into the stronger hands of the able commander 
Trajan, whom Nerva had previously made his associate in the 
government. 

305. Trajan (a.d. 98-117). Trajan was a native of Spain and a 
soldier by profession and talent. He was the first provincial to sit 
in the seat of the Caesars. From this time forward provincials 
were to play a part of ever-increasing importance in the affairs of 
the Empire. 

It was the policy of Augustus — a policy adopted by most of 
his successors — to make the Danube in Europe and the Euphra- 
tes in Asia the limits of the Roman Empire in those respective 

1 During the past century extensive excavations have uncovered a large part of 
Pompeii and revealed to us the streets, homes, theaters, baths, shops, temples, and 
various monuments of the ancient city — all of which presents a vivid picture of Roman 
life during the imperial period eighteen hundred years ago. 



210 FROM TIBERIUS TO DIOCLETIAN [§306 

quarters. But Trajan determined to push the frontiers of his 
dominions beyond both these rivers. In the early part of his 
reign he was busied in wars against the Dacians, a people living 
north of the Lower Danube. These troublesome enemies were 
subjugated, and Dacia was made into a province. The modern 
name Rumania is a monument of this Roman conquest and 
colonization beyond the Danube. The Rumanians today speak a 
language that in its main elements is largely of Latin origin. 1 

In the latter years of his reign Trajan led his legions to the 
East, crossed the Euphrates, reduced Armenia, and wrested from 
the Parthians most of the lands which once formed the heart of 
the Assyrian monarchy. Out of the territories he had conquered 
Trajan made three new provinces, which bore the ancient names 
of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. 

To Trajan belongs the distinction of having extended the 
boundaries of the Empire to the most distant points to which 
Roman ambition and prowess were ever able to push them. 

306. Hadrian (a.d. 117-138). Hadrian, a kinsman of Trajan, 
succeeded him in the imperial office. He prudently abandoned the 
territory acquired by Trajan beyond the Euphrates, and made 
that stream once more the eastern boundary of the Empire. 

More than fifteen years of his reign were spent by Hadrian in 
making tours of inspection through all the different provinces of 
the Empire. He visited Britain, and secured the Roman posses- 
sions there against the Picts and Scots by erecting a continuous 
rampart, known as "Hadrian's Wall," across the island from the 
Tyne to the Solway Firth. This wall, in places well preserved, 
can still be traced over the low hills of the English moorlands 
almost from sea to sea. There exists nowhere in the lands that 
once formed the provinces of the Empire of Rome any more 
impressive memorial of her world-wide dominion than these 
ramparts, along which for three hundred years and more her 
sentinels kept watch and ward for civilization against the barba- 
rian marauders of Caledonia. 

1 The Romanic-speaking peoples of Rumania and the neighboring regions number 
about ten millions. 



§307] THE ANTONINES 211 

307. The Antonines (a.d. 138-I80). Aurelius Antoninus, sur- 
named Pius, the adopted son of Hadrian, and his successor, gave 
the Roman Empire an administration singularly pure and parental. 
Throughout his long reign of twenty-three years the Empire was 
in a state of profound peace. The attention of the historian is 
attracted by no striking events, which fact, as many have not 
failed to observe, illustrates admirably the oft-repeated epigram, 
u Happy is that people whose annals are brief." 

Antoninus, early in his reign, had united with himself in the 
government his adopted son Marcus Aurelius, and upon the death 
of the former (a.d. 161) the latter succeeded quietly to his place 
and work. The studious habits of Aurelius won for him the title 
of Philosopher. He belonged to the school of the Stoics, and was 
a most thoughtful writer. His Meditations make the nearest 
approach to the spirit of Christianity of all the writings of 
pagan antiquity. 

Having in mind the character of Marcus Aurelius, it perhaps 
will seem strange to some that one of the severest persecutions of 
the Christians should have taken place, as it did, in his reign. In 
explanation of this it should be noted that the persecution of the 
Christians under the pagan emperors sprang from political rather 
than religious motives, and that is why we find the names of the 
best emperors, as well as those of the worst, in the list of perse- 
cutors. It was believed that the welfare of the state was bound up 
with the careful performance of the rites of the national worship ; 
and hence, while the Roman rulers were usually very tolerant, 
allowing all forms of worship among their subjects, still they re- 
quired that men of every faith should at least recognize the 
Roman gods and burn incense before their statues, and particu- 
larly before the statue of the emperor (sect. 299). This the 
Christians steadily refused to do. The neglect of the temple serv- 
ices it was believed angered the gods and endangered the safety of 
the state, bringing upon it drought, pestilence, and every disaster. 
This was a main reason of their persecution by the pagan emperors. 

Toward the end of the reign of Marcus Aurelius imperative 
calls for help came from the north. The barbarians were pushing 



212 FROM TIBERIUS TO DIOCLETIAN [§308 

in the Roman outposts and pouring over the frontiers. Aurelius 
placed himself at the head of his legions and hurried beyond the 
Alps. He checked the inroads of the barbarians, but could not 
subdue them. At last his weak body gave way beneath the hard- 
ships of his numerous campaigns, and he died in his camp at 
Vindobona (now Vienna) in the nineteenth year of his reign 
(a.d. 180). 

Never was Monarchy so justified of her children as in the lives 
and works of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. As Merivale, 
in dwelling upon their virtues, very justly remarks, "The blame- 
less career of these illustrious princes has furnished the best excuse 
for Caesarism in all after ages." 

308. The State of the Provinces. The close of the auspicious 
era of the Antonines invites us to cast a glance over the Empire, 
in order that we may note the condition of the population at large. 
As we have already observed, the great revolution which brought 
in the Empire was a revolution which conduced to the interests 
of the provincials. Even under the worst emperors the adminis- 
tration of affairs in the provinces was as a rule humane and just. 
It is probably true that, embracing in a single view all the 
countries included in the Roman Empire, the second century of 
the Christian era marks the happiest period in their history. 

The cities of the Eastern countries, as well as hundreds of simi- 
lar communities in Spain, in Gaul, in Britain, and in other lands 
of the West, were enjoying, under the admirable municipal sys- 
tem developed by the Romans, a measure of local self-government 
probably equal to that enjoyed today by the municipalities 
of the most advanced of the countries of modern Europe. This 
wise system had preserved or developed the sentiment of local 
patriotism and civic pride. The cities vied with one another in the 
erection of theaters, amphitheaters, baths, temples, and triumphal 
arches, and in the construction of aqueducts, bridges, and other 
works of a utilitarian nature. In these undertakings they were 
aided not only by liberal contributions made by the emperors from 
the imperial treasury but by the generous gifts and bequests of 
individual citizens. Private munificence of this character was as 



§ 309] 



THE SALE OF THE EMPIRE 



213 



remarkable a feature of this age as is the liberality of individuals 
at the present day in the endowment of educational and charitable 
institutions. 

Scores of majestic ruins scattered throughout the lands once 
forming the provinces of the ancient Empire of Rome bear im- 
pressive testimony not only as to the populousness, culture, and 




Fig. 72. Roman Aqueduct and Bridge, dating from the Early 
Empire, near Nimes, France. (Present condition) 

This is one of the finest and most impressive of the existing monuments of the old 
Roman builders. The lower row of arches carries a modern roadway 



enterprise of the urban communities of the Roman dominions 
but also as to the generally wise and beneficent character of the 
earlier imperial rule. 

309. A Century of Anarchy; the Sale of the Empire (a.d. 193). 
For about a hundred years after the beneficent rule of the 
Antonines the Empire was the prey of disorder and sedition. The 
character of the period is revealed by the fact that of the twenty- 
five emperors who mounted the throne during this time all except 
four came to death by violence. To internal disorders was added 
the terror of barbarian invasions. On every side savage hordes were 
breaking into the Empire to rob, to murder, and to burn. 



214 FROM TIBERIUS TO DIOCLETIAN [§309 

One of the most significant events of these troublous times was 
the sale of the Empire by the pretorians. 1 These soldiers, having 
killed the reigning Emperor, gave out notice that they would sell 
the Empire to the highest bidder. It was accordingly set up for 
sale at their camp and struck off to Didius Julianus, a wealthy 
senator, who promised twenty-five thousand sesterces (about 
$1000) to each of the twelve thousand soldiers at this time 
composing the guard. 

As soon as the news of the disgraceful transaction reached the 
legions on the frontiers, they rose in indignant revolt. Each army 
proclaimed its favorite commander Emperor. The leader of the 
Danubian troops was Septimius Severus, a man of great energy 
and force of character. He knew that there were other competitors 
for the throne, and that the prize would be his who first seized it. 
Instantly he set his veterans in motion and was soon at Rome. 
The pretorians were no match for the trained legionaries of the 
frontiers, and did not even attempt to defend their Emperor, who 
was taken prisoner and put to death after a reign of sixty-five 
days. As a punishment for the insult they had offered to the 
Roman state the unworthy pretorians were disbanded and banished 
from the capital, and a new bodyguard of legionaries was organized 
to take their place. 

References. Gibbon, E., chap, ii, " Of the Union and Internal Prosperity 
of the Roman Empire in the Age of the Antonines." Mommsen, T., The 
Provinces of the Roman Empire from Ccesar to Diocletian. Pelham, H. F., 
Outlines of Roman History, pp. 470-548. Dill, S., Roman Society from Nero 
to Marcus Aurelius (a notable book). Tucker, T. G., Life in the Roman 
World of A T ero and St. Paul. Watson, P. B., Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 
chap, vii, " The Attitude of Aurelius towards Christianity." Capes, W. \V., 
The Age of the Antonines. Mau, A., Potnpeii : its Life and Art. LANCIANI, 
R., Pagan and Christian Rome, chap, vii (on the Catacombs). 

1 See above, p. 206, n. 1. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
DIOCLETIAN AND CONSTANTINE THE GREAT 
I. THE REIGN OF DIOCLETIAN (a.d. 284-305) 

310. General Statement. The accession of Diocletian marks 
an important era in the history of the Roman Empire. The two 
matters of chief importance connected with his reign are the 
changes he effected in the government and his persecution of the 
Christians. Diocletian's governmental reforms, though radical, 
were salutary, and infused such fresh vitality into the frame of 
the dying state as to give it a new lease of life for another term 
of nearly two hundred years. 

311. The Empire becomes an Undisguised Oriental Monarchy. 
Up to the time we have now reached, the really monarchical char- 
acter of the government had been more or less carefully concealed 
under the forms and names of the old Republic. Realizing that 
republican government among the Romans had passed away for- 
ever, and that its forms were now absolutely meaningless, Dio- 
cletian cast aside all the masks with which Augustus had concealed 
his practically unlimited power and which fear or policy had led 
his successors, with greater or less consistency, to retain, and let 
the government stand forth naked in the true character of what it 
had now virtually become — an absolute Asiatic monarchy. 

The change was marked by Diocletian's assumption of the titles 
of Asiatic royalty and his adoption of the court ceremonials and 
etiquette of the East. He clothed himself in magnificent robes 
of silk and gold. He took the title of lord, and all who approached 
him were required to prostrate themselves to the ground, a form of 
oriental and servile adoration which the free races of the West 
had hitherto, with manly disdain, refused to render to their magis- 
trates and rulers. 

215 



216 DIOCLETIAN AND CONSTANTINE [§312 

312. Changes in the Administrative System. The century of 
anarchy which preceded the accession of Diocletian, and the death 
by assassination during this period of so many of the wearers of 
the imperial purple, had made manifest the need of a system which 
would discourage assassination and provide a regular mode of suc- 
cession to the throne. Diocletian devised a system the aim of 
which was to compass both these ends. First, he chose as a col- 
league a companion ruler, Maximian, who, like himself, bore the 
title of Augustus. Then each of the co-emperors associated with 
himself an assistant, who took the title of Caesar and was con- 
sidered the son and heir of the emperor. There were thus two 
Augusti and two Caesars. Milan, in Italy, became the capital and 
residence of Maximian ; while Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, became 
the seat of the court of Diocletian. The Augusti took charge of 
the countries near their respective capitals, while the Caesars, — 
Galerius and Constantius, — younger and more active, were assigned 
the government of the more distant and turbulent provinces. The 
vigorous administration of the government in every quarter of the 
Empire was thus secured. 

Diocletian also subdivided many of the provinces. His purpose 
in doing this was to diminish the power of the provincial governors 
and thus make it impossible for them to raise successfully the 
standard of revolt. 

A most serious drawback to this system was the heavy expense 
involved in the maintenance of four courts with their endless 
retinues of officers and dependents, and the great number of 
officials needed to man and work the complicated system. It was 
complained that the number of those who received the revenues of 
the state was greater than that of those who contributed to them. 
The burden of taxation grew unendurable. Husbandry in some 
regions ceased, and great numbers were reduced to beggary or 
driven into brigandage. The curiales, or members of the local 
senates, were made responsible for the payment of the taxes due 
the government from their respective communities, and hence office- 
holding became not an honor to be coveted but a burden to be 
evaded. It was this vicious system of taxation which more than 



§313] GROWTH OF A CASTE SYSTEM 217 

any other one cause contributed to the depopulation, impoverish- 
ment, and final downfall of the Empire. 

313. Growth of a Caste System. To escape from the intoler- 
able burdens many of the peasant farmers fled to the desert and 
became monks ; others escaped across the frontiers and sought 
freedom among the barbarians. The well-to-do tried in every way 
to evade the burden of taxation and of office. To meet the situa- 
tion the government adopted the policy of tying everyone liable 
to taxation to his post or profession. The colonus, or peasant 
farmer, was attached to the land he worked and thus made a serf ; 
the artisan was bound to his trade, the 
merchant to his business. Moreover, all 
offices, trades, and professions were, in so 
far as it was possible, made hereditary, 
children being forced to follow the occupa- 
tion of their father. Everyone was to re- 
main in the station in which he was born. 
Classes thus tended to become rigid hered- 
itary castes. Personal liberty disappeared. jr IG 7, Christ as 

Perhaps we cannot better indicate the the Good Shepherd 
new relation to the Empire into which the (From the Catacombs) 
head of the Roman state was brought by 

the innovations of Diocletian and his successor than by saying that 
the Empire now became the private estate of the sovereign and was 
managed just as any great Roman proprietor managed his domain. 

314. Persecution of the Christians. Toward the end of his 
reign Diocletian inaugurated against the Christians a persecution 
which continued long after his abdication, and which was the sever- 
est, as it was the last, waged against the Church by the pagan 
emperors. It was during this and the various other persecutions 
that vexed the Church in the second and third centuries that the 
Christians sometimes sought refuge in the Catacombs, those vast 
subterranean galleries and chambers under the city of Rome. Here 
they buried their dead, and on the walls of the chambers sketched 
rude symbols of their hope and faith. It was in the darkness of 
these subterranean abodes that Christian art had its beginnings. 




218 DIOCLETIAN AND CONST ANTINE [§315 

315. The Abdication of Diocletian. After a reign of twenty 
years, becoming weary of the cares of state, Diocletian abdicated 
the throne and forced or induced his colleague Maximian also to 
lay down his authority on the same day. Galerius and Constantius 
were, by this act, advanced to the purple and made Augusti ; and 
two new associates were appointed as Caesars. 

Diocletian then retired to his country seat at Salona, on the 
eastern shore of the Adriatic. It is related that, when Maximian 
wrote him urging him to endeavor with him to regain the power 
they had laid aside, he replied, "Were you but to come to Salona 
and see the cabbages which I raise in my garden with my own 
hands, you would no longer talk to me of empire." 



II. REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (a. d. 306-337) 

316. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (a.d. 312); "In this 
Sign conquer." Galerius and Constantius, who became Augusti 
on the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, had reigned to- 
gether only one year when Constantius died at York, in Britain. 
His soldiers, disregarding the rule of succession as determined 
by the system of Diocletian, proclaimed his son Constantine 
Emperor. Six competitors for the throne arose in different quarters. 
For eighteen years Constantine fought before he gained the 
supremacy. 

One of the most important of the battles that took place between 
the contending rivals for the imperial purple was the battle of 
the Milvian Bridge, about two miles from Rome. Constantine's 
standard on this celebrated battlefield was the Christian cross. 
He had been led to adopt this emblem through the appearance, as 
once he prayed to the sun-god, of a cross over the setting sun, 
with this inscription above it : "In this sign conquer." 1 Obedient 
unto the celestial vision, Constantine had at once made the cross 
his banner, and it was beneath this new emblem that his soldiers 
marched to victory at the battle of the Milvian Bridge. 

1 In hoc signo vinces ; in Greek, kv to6t(j) vLko.. 



§317] CONSTANTINE ADOPTS CHRISTIANITY 219 

317. Constantine makes Christianity the Religion of the 
Court. By a decree issued at Milan a.d. 313, the year after the 
battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine placed Christianity on 
an equal footing with the other religions of the Empire. The lan- 
guage of this famous edict of toleration, the Magna Carta, as it 




Fig. 74. Arch of Constantine at Rome, as it Appears Today 

Erected by the Roman Senate in commemoration of Constantine's victory over Maxentius 
at the Milvian Bridge 



has been called, of the Church, was in import as follows: "We 
grant to Christians and to all others full liberty of following that 
religion which each may choose." "For the first time in history, 
the principle of universal toleration was [thus] officially laid 
down." 1 

But by subsequent edicts Constantine made Christianity in effect 
the state religion and extended to it a patronage which he with- 
held from the old pagan worship. He granted the Christian so- 
cieties the right to receive gifts and legacies, and he himself 
enriched the Church with donations of money and grants of land. 

1 The Cambridge Med'neval History, vol. i, p. 5. An earlier edict of toleration by the 
emperor Galerius gave the Christians freedom of worship, but did not recognize the 
principle of universal toleration. 



220 DIOCLETIAN AND CONST ANTINE [§318 

This marks the beginning of the great possessions of the Church, 
and with these the entrance into it of a worldly spirit. From this 
moment can be traced the decay of its primitive simplicity and a 
decline from its early high moral standard. It is these deplorable 
results of the imperial patronage that Dante laments in his well- 
known lines : 

Ah, Constantine ! of how much ill was mother, 
Not thy conversion, but that marriage dower 
Which the first wealthy Father took from thee ! 1 

Another of Constantine's acts touching the new religion is of 
special historical interest and importance. He recognized the 
Christian Sunday as a day of rest, forbidding ordinary work on 
that day, and ordering that Christian soldiers be then permitted 
to attend the services of their Church. This recognition by the 
civil authority of the Christian Sabbath meant much for the slave. 
Now, for the first time in the history of the Aryan peoples, the 
slave had one day of rest in each week. It was a good augury of 
the happier time coming when all the days should be his own. 

318. The Church Council of Niceea (a.d. 325). With a view 
to settling the controversy between theArians and theAthanasians 2 
respecting the nature of Christ, — the former denied his equality 
with God the Father, — Constantine called the first (Ecumenical 
or General Council of the Church at Nicaea, a town of Asia Minor, 
a.d. 325. Arianism was denounced, and a formula of Christian 
faith adopted, which is known as the Nicene Creed. 

319. Constantine founds Constantinople, the New Rome, on 
the Bosphorus (a.d. 330). After the recognition of Christianity, 
the most important act of Constantine was the selection of Byzan- 
tium, on the Bosphorus, as the new capital of the Empire. One 
reason which led the Emperor to select a new seat for his court 
and government was the ungracious conduct towards him of the 
inhabitants of Rome, because he had abandoned the worship of 

1 Inferno, xix, 115-117. 

2 The Arians were the followers of Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria in Egypt ; the 
Athanasians, of Athanasius, archdeacon and later bishop of the same city, and the 
champion of the orthodox or Catholic view of the Trinity. 



§320] THE PAGAN RESTORATION 221 

the old national deities. But there were also military reasons, the 
most dangerous enemies of the Empire being now in the East ; and 
also commercial, social, and political reasons, since through the 
Eastern conquests of Rome the center of population, wealth, and 
culture of the Empire had shifted eastward. 

The imperial invitation and the attractions of the court induced 
multitudes to crowd into the new capital, so that almost in a day 
the old Byzantium grew into a great city. In honor of the Em- 
peror the name was changed to Constantinople, the "City of 
Constantine." The old Rome on the Tiber, emptied of its leading 
inhabitants, soon sank to the obscure position of a provincial 
town. 

320. The Pagan Restoration under Julian the Apostate 
(a.d. 361-363). A troubled period of nearly a quarter of a century 
followed the death of Constantine the Great, and then the imperial 
scepter came into the hands of Julian, called the Apostate because 
he abandoned Christianity and labored to restore the pagan wor- 
ship. In his efforts to restore paganism, however, Julian did not 
resort to the old means of persuasion, — "the sword, the fire, the 
lions." One reason why he did not was because under the softening 
influences of the very faith he sought to extirpate, the Roman 
world had already become imbued with a gentleness and humanity 
that rendered morally impossible the renewal of the Neronian and 
Diocletian persecutions. Julian's chief weapon was the pen, for he 
was a writer and satirist of no mean talent. 

The disabilities under which Julian had placed the Christians 
were removed by his successor Jov'an (a.d. 363-364) and Chris- 
tianity was again made the religion of the imperial court. 

References. Gibbon, E., chap, xvii (on the founding of Constantinople and 
the form of the government). Uhlhorn, G., Conflict of Christianity with 
Heathenism, bk. iii, chaps, i-iii. Firth, J. B., Constantine the Great. Stanley, 
A. P., Lectures on the History of the Eastern Chinch, lects. ii-v (for the history 
of the Council of Nicaea, 325 B.C.). SEELEY, J. R., Roman Imperialism, lect. iii, 
" The Later Empire." The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i, chaps, i-vii. 
Mason, A. J., The Persecution of Diocletian, chap. iii. Oman, C, The Byzantine 
Empire, pp. 13-30. Gardner, A.,fuliau the Philosopher, and the Last Struggle 
of Paganism against Christianity. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE LAST CENTURY OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 
(A.D. 376-476) 

321. Introductory : the Germans and Christianity. The two 

most vital elements in the Grseco-Roman world of the fifth century 
were the German (Teutonic) barbarians and Christianity. They 
had, centuries before this, as we have seen, come into certain 
relations to the Roman government and to Roman life; but. 
during the period lying immediately before us they assumed an 
altogether new historical interest and importance. 

The two main matters, then, which will claim our attention 
during the century yet remaining for survey, will be (i) the 
struggle between the dying Empire and the young German races 
of the North ; and ( 2 ) the final triumph of Christianity, through 
the aid of the temporal power, over expiring paganism. 

322. The Goths cross the Danube (a.d. 376). The year 376 
of the Christian era marks an event of the greatest importance in 
the East. The Visigoths (Western Goths) dwelling north of the 
Lower Danube appeared as suppliants in vast multitudes upon its 
banks. They said that a terrible race, whom they were powerless 
to withstand, had invaded their territories and spared neither their 
homes nor their lives. They begged permission of the Emperor 
Valens 1 to cross the river and settle in Thrace. Their petition 
was granted on condition that they surrender their arms and give 
up their children as hostages. 

The enemy that had so terrified the Visigoths were the Huns, 
a monstrous race of fierce nomadic horsemen from the vast steppes 
of Asia. Scarcely had the fugitives been received within the 
limits of the Empire before a large company of their kinsmen, the 

iValens (a. D. 364-387) was Emperor of the East. Valentinian (a. d. 364-375), 
Emperor of the West, had just died, and been succeeded by Gratian (a.d. 375-383). 

222 



§323] PROHIBITION OF THE PAGAN CULTS 223 

Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths), also driven from their homes by 
the same terrible enemy, crowded to the banks of the Danube and 
pleaded that they also might be allowed to place the river between 
themselves and their dreaded foe. But Valens, becoming alarmed 
at the presence of so many barbarians within his dominions, refused 
their request, whereupon they crossed the river with arms in 
their hands. 

Once within the Empire the Ostrogoths, joined by their Visi- 
gothic kinsmen, soon began to ravage the Danubian provinces. 
Valens dispatched swift messengers to Gratian, Emperor in the 
West, asking for assistance. Gratian was hurrying to the help of 
his colleague when news of his defeat and death at the hands of 
the barbarians was brought to him. He at once appointed as his 
associate Theodosius (a.d. 379-395), known afterwards as the 
Great, and intrusted him with the government of the East. Theo- 
dosius quickly reduced the Goths to submission. Great multitudes 
of them were settled upon the waste lands of Thrace, while more 
than forty thousand of these warlike barbarians, the destined sub- 
verted of the Empire, were enlisted in the imperial service. 

323. The Prohibition of the Pagan Cults. Both Gratian and 
Theodosius were zealous champions of the orthodox Church, and 
a large portion of the edicts issued during their joint reign had 
for aim the uprooting of heresy or the suppression of the pagan 
worship. At first the pagans were merely placed under certain 
disabilities, but finally it was made a crime for anyone to practice 
any pagan cult, or even to enter a temple. Even the private 
worship of the Lares and Penates was prohibited. The struggle 
between Christianity and heathenism was now virtually ended — 
and the " Galilean" had conquered. Pagan rites, however, especially 
in the country districts, were practiced secretly long after this. 

324. Emperor Theodosius the Great and Bishop Ambrose of 
Milan. A memorable incident, illustrative of the influence of the 
new religion that was now fast taking the place of paganism, marks 
the reign of Theodosius the Great. In a sedition the people of 
Thessalonica, in Macedonia, had murdered the general and several 
officers of the imperial garrison in that place. When intelligence 



224 THE LAST CENTURY IN THE WEST [§325 

of the event reached Theodosius his hasty temper broke through 
all restraint, and, moved by a spirit of savage vengeance, he 
ordered an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants of Thes- 
salonica. The command was obeyed and at least seven thousand 
persons perished. 

Shortly after the massacre, the Emperor, as he was entering the 
door of the cathedral at Milan where he was wont to worship, was 
met at the threshold by the pious Bishop Ambrose, who, in the 
name of the God of justice and mercy, forbade him to enter the 
sacred place until he had done public penance for his awful crime. 
The commander of all the Roman legions was constrained to obey 
the unarmed pastor. In penitential garb and attitude Theodosius 
made public confession of his sin and humbly underwent the 
penance imposed by the Church. This passage of history is note- 
worthy as marking a stage in the moral progress of humanity. It 
made manifest how with Christianity a new moral force had 
entered the world to interpose, in the name of justice and human- 
ity, between the weak and defenseless and their self-willed and 
arbitrary rulers. 

325. Final Administrative Division of the Empire (a.d. 395). 
During the last years of his reign Theodosius ruled without a 
colleague. Upon his death the imperial government, as he had 
prearranged, was divided between his two sons, Arcadius and 
Honorius. Arcadius received the government of the East, and 
Honorius, still a mere child of eleven, the government of the 
West. This division was in no way different from those that 
had been repeatedly made since the time of Diocletian, and was 
not to affect the unity of the Empire. But so different was 
the trend of events in the two halves of the old Empire from this 
time on that the historians of Rome have generally allowed this 
division of the imperial rule to constitute a dividing line in the 
history of the Empire, and have begun here to trace separately the 
story of each part. 

326. The Empire in the East. The story of the fortunes of 
the Empire in the East need not detain us long here. The line of 
Eastern emperors lasted over a thousand years — until the capture 



§327] LAST TRIUMPH AT ROME 225 

of Constantinople by the Turks, a.d. 1453. It will thus be seen 
that the greater part of its history belongs to the mediaeval period. 
Up to the time of the dissolution of the Empire in the West the 
emperors of the East were engaged almost incessantly in suppress- 
ing uprisings of their Gothic allies or mercenaries, or in repelling 
invasions of different barbarian tribes. 

327. Last Triumph at Rome (a.d. 404). Only a few years had 
elapsed after the death of the great Theodosius before the bar- 
barians were trooping in vast hordes through all parts of the 
Empire. First, from Thrace and Mcesia came the Visigoths, led 
by the great Alaric. After a raid through Greece they crossed the 
Julian Alps and spread terror throughout Italy. Defeated by 
Stilicho, the renowned Vandal general of Honorius, they finally 
withdrew from Italy through the defiles of the Alps. A magnificent 
triumph at Rome celebrated the deliverance. It was the last 
triumph that Rome ever saw. Three hundred times — such is 
asserted to be the number — the imperial city had witnessed the 
triumphal procession of her victorious generals, celebrating con- 
quests in all quarters of the world. 

328. Last Gladiatorial Combat of the Amphitheater. The 
same year that marks the last military triumph at Rome signalizes 
also the last gladiatorial combat in the Roman amphitheater. It 
is to Christianity that the credit for the suppression, of these in- 
human exhibitions is entirely, or almost entirely, due. The pagan 
philosophers usually regarded them with indifference, often with 
favor. They were defended on the ground that they fostered a 
martial spirit among the people and inured the soldiers to the 
sights of the battlefield. Hence gladiatorial games were sometimes 
actually exhibited to the legions before they set out on their 
campaigns. 

But the Christian Fathers denounced the combats as immoral, 
and strove in every possible way to create a public opinion against 
them. At length, in a.d. 325, the first imperial edict against them 
was issued by Constantine. From this time forward the exhibi- 
tions were under something of a ban, until their final abolition was 
brought about by an incident of the games that closed the triumph 



226 THE LAST CENTURY IN THE WEST [§329 

of Honorius. In the midst of the exhibition a Christian monk 
named Telemachus, leaping into the arena, rushed between the 
combatants, but was instantly killed by a shower of missiles thrown 
by the people, who were angered by his interruption of their 
sport. The people, however, soon repented of their act ; and 
Honorius himself, who was present, was moved by the scene. 
Christianity had awakened the conscience and touched the heart 
of Rome. The martyrdom of the monk led to an imperial edict 
" which abolished forever the human sacrifices of the amphitheater." 

329. Sack of Rome by Alaric (ad. 410). Shortly after Alaric's 
first invasion of Italy, he again crossed the mountains and led his 
hosts to the very gates of Rome. Not since the time of the dread 
Hannibal — more than six hundred years before this — had Rome 
been insulted by the presence of a foreign foe beneath her walls. 
Only by the payment of a great ransom did the city escape sack 
and pillage. 

After receiving the ransom Alaric withdrew his army from before 
Rome and established his camp in Etruria. The chieftain now 
demanded for his followers lands of Honorius, who, with his court, 
was safe behind the marshes of Ravenna ; but the Emperor treated 
all the proposals of the barbarian with foolish insolence. 

Rome paid the penalty. Alaric turned upon the city, resolved 
upon its plunder. The barbarians broke into the capital by night, 
"and the inhabitants were awakened by the tremendous sound of 
the Gothic trumpet." Just eight hundred years had passed since 
its sack by the Gauls (sect. 248). Now it is given over for the 
second time as a spoil to barbarians. Alaric commanded his sol- 
diers to spare the lives of the people, and to leave untouched the 
treasures of the Christian churches ; but the wealth of the citizens 
he permitted them to make their own. It was a rich booty with 
which they loaded their wagons, for within the palace of the 
Caesars and the homes of the wealthy were gathered the riches of 
a plundered world. 

330. The Death of Alaric (a.d. 410). After withdrawing his 
warriors from Rome, Alaric led them southward. As they moved 
slowly on, they piled still higher the wagons of their long trains 




20 from Greenwich 30 



§331] DISINTEGRATION OF THE EMPIRE 227 

with the rich spoils of the cities and villas of Campania and other 
districts of southern Italy. In the villas of the Roman nobles the 
barbarians spread rare banquets from the stores of their well-filled 
cellars, and drank from jeweled cups the famed Falernian wine. 

Alaric's designs of conquest in Africa were frustrated by his 
death. Tradition tells how, with religious care, his followers 
secured the body of their hero against molestation. The little river 
Busentinus, in northern Bruttium, was turned from its course with 
great labor, and in the bed of the stream was constructed a tomb, 
in which was placed the body of the king, with his jewels and 
trophies. The river was then restored to its old channel, and, 
that the exact spot might never be known, the prisoners who had 
been forced to do the work were all put to death. 

331. The Disintegration of the Empire and the Beginnings 
of the Barbarian Kingdoms. We must now turn our eyes from 
Rome and Italy in order to watch the movement of events in 
the Western provinces of the Empire. During the forty years fol- 
lowing the sack of Rome by Alaric, the German tribes seized the 
greater part of these provinces and established in them what are 
known as the barbarian kingdoms. 

The Goths who had pillaged Rome and Italy, after the death of 
their great chieftain Alaric, under the lead of his successors, re- 
crossed the Alps, and, establishing their camps in the south of Gaul 
and the north of Spain, set up finally in. those regions what is 
known as the kingdom of the Visigoths or West Goths. 

While the Goths were making these migrations and settlements, 
a kindred but less civilized tribe, the Vandals, moving from their 
seat in Pannonia, traversed Gaul, crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, 
and there occupied for a time a large tract of country, which in its 
present name of Andalusia preserves the memory of its barbarian 
settlers. Then they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, overthrew the 
Roman authority in all North Africa, and made Carthage the seat 
of a dread corsair empire. 

Meanwhile the Franks, who about a century before the sack of 
Rome by Alaric had made their first settlement in Roman territory 
west of the Rhine, were increasing in numbers and in authority 



228 



THE LAST CENTURY IN THE WEST 



[§331 



and were laying the foundation of what after the fall of Rome was 
to become known as the kingdom of the Franks — the beginning 
of the French nation of today. 

But the most important of all the settlements of the barbarians 
was being made in the remote province of Britain. In his efforts 
to defend Italy against her barbarian invaders, Stilicho had with- 
drawn the last legion from Britain, and had thus left unguarded 




Fig. 75. Germans Crossing the Rhine. (After a drawing by Alphonse 

de A T euville) 



the Hadrian Wall in the north (sect. 306) and the long coast line 
facing the continent. The Picts of Caledonia, taking advantage 
of the withdrawal of the guardians of the province, swarmed over 
the unsentineled rampart and pillaged the fields and towns of the 
south. The half-Romanized and effeminate provincials — no match 
for their hardy kinsmen who had never bowed their necks to the 
yoke of Rome — were driven to despair by the ravages of their 
relentless enemies, and, in their helplessness, invited to their aid 
the Angles and Saxons from the shores of the North Sea. These 
people came in their rude boats, drove back the invaders, and, 



§332] INVASION OF THE HUNS 229 

being pleased with the soil and climate of the island, took posses- 
sion of the country for themselves and became the ancestors of 
the English people. 

332. Invasion of the Huns ; Battle of Chalons (a.d. 451). 
The barbarians who were thus overunning and parceling out the 
inheritance of the dying Empire were now in turn pressed upon 
and terrified by a foe more hideous and dreadful in their eyes than 
they themselves were in the eyes of the Roman provincials. These 
were the Mongol Huns, from the region northwest of China, of 
whom we have already caught a glimpse as they drove the panic- 
stricken Goths across the Danube (sect. 322). At this time their 
leader was Attila, whom the affrighted inhabitants of Europe called 
the "Scourge of God." It was Attila's boast that the grass never 
grew again where once the hoof of his horse had trod. 

Attila defeated the armies of the Eastern Emperor and exacted 
tribute from the court of Constantinople. Then he turned west- 
ward and finally drew up his mighty hosts upon the plain of 
Chalons, in the north of Gaul, and there awaited the onset of the 
Romans and their allies. The conflict was long and terrible, but 
at last fortune turned against the barbarians, whose losses were 
enormous. Attila succeeded in escaping from the field and retreated 
with his shattered hosts across the Rhine. 

This great victory is placed among the significant events of 
history ; for it decided that the Indo-European folk, and not 
the Mongolian Huns, should inherit the dominions of the expiring 
Roman Empire and control the destinies of Europe. 

333. Attila threatens Rome; his Death (a.d. 453?). The year 
after his defeat at Chalons, Attila crossed the Alps and burned or 
plundered all the important cities of northern Italy. The Veneti 
fled for safety to the morasses at the head of the Adriatic (a.d. 452 ) . 
Upon the islets where they built their rude dwellings there grew 
up in time the city of Venice, " the eldest daughter of the Roman 
Empire," the "Carthage of the Middle Ages." 

The barbarians threatened Rome ; but Leo the Great, bishop of 
the capital, went with an embassy to the camp of Attila and 
pleaded for the city. He recalled to the mind of Attila how death 



230 THE LAST CENTURY IN THE WEST [§ 334 

had overtaken the impious Alaric soon after he had given the 
imperial city as a spoil to his warriors, and warned him not to call 
down upon himself the like judgment of Heaven. Attila was 
induced to spare the city and to lead his warriors back beyond 
the Alps. Shortly after he had crossed the Danube he died sud- 
denly in his camp, and like Alaric was buried secretly. 

334. Sack of Rome by the Vandals (a.d. 455). Rome had 
been saved a visitation from the spoiler of the North, but a new 
destruction was about to burst upon it by way of the sea from the 
South. Africa sent out another enemy whose greed for plunder 
proved more fatal to Rome than the eternal hate of Hannibal. 
The kings of the Vandal empire in North Africa had acquired as 
perfect a supremacy in the western Mediterranean as Carthage 
ever enjoyed in the days of her commercial pride. Vandal corsairs 
swept the seas and harassed all the shore-lands. In the year 455 a 
Vandal fleet led by the dread Geiseric sailed up the Tiber. 

Panic seized the people, for the name Vandal was pronounced 
with terror throughout the world. Again the great Leo, who had 
once before saved his flock from the fury of Attila, went forth to 
intercede in the name of Christ for the imperial city. Geiseric 
granted to the pious bishop the lives of the citizens, but said that 
the movable property of the capital belonged to his warriors. For 
fourteen days and nights the city was given over to the bar- 
barians. The ships of the Vandals, which almost hid with their 
number the waters of the Tiber, were piled, as had been the wagons 
of the Goths before them, with the rich and weighty spoils of the 
capital. Palaces were stripped of their furniture, and the walls of 
the temples denuded of the trophies of a hundred Roman victories. 
From the Capitoline sanctuary were borne off the golden candle- 
stick and other sacred things that Titus had stolen from the temple 
at Jerusalem 1 (sect. 302). 

The greed of the barbarians was sated at last, and they were 
ready to withdraw. The Vandal fleet sailed for Carthage, bearing, 

1 " The golden candlestick reached the African capital, was recovered a century later, 
and lodged in Constantinople by Justinian, and by him replaced, from superstitious 
motives, in Jerusalem. From that time its history is lost." — Merivale 



§335] THE BREAK-UP OF THE EMPIRE 231 

besides the plunder of the city, more than thirty thousand of the 
inhabitants as slaves. Carthage, through her own barbarian con- 
querors, was at last avenged upon her hated rival. The mournful 
presentiment of Scipio had been fulfilled (sect. 270). The cruel 
fate of Carthage might have been read again in the pillaged city 
that the Vandals left behind them. 

335. Last Act in the Break-up of the Empire in the West 
(a.d. 476). Only the shadow of the Empire in the West now re- 
mained. The provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Africa were in the 
hands of the Franks, the Goths, the Vandals, and various other 
intruding tribes. Italy, as well as Rome herself, had become again 
and again the spoil of the barbarians. The story of the twenty 
years following the sack of the capital by Geiseric affords only a 
repetition of the events we have been narrating. During these 
years several puppet emperors were set up by army leaders. The 
last was a child of only six years. By what has been called a freak 
of fortune this boy-sovereign bore the name of Romulus Augustus, 
thus uniting in the name of the last Roman emperor of the West 
the names of the founder of Rome and the establisher of the 
Empire. He reigned only one year, when Odoacer, the leader of 
a small German tribe, dethroned the child-emperor. 

The Roman Senate now sent to Constantinople an embassy to 
represent to the Eastern Emperor Zeno that the West was willing 
to give up its claims to an emperor of its own, and to request that 
the German chief, with the title of patrician, might rule Italy as 
his viceroy. With this rank and title Odoacer assumed the govern- 
ment of the peninsula. Thus Italy, while remaining nominally a 
part of the Empire, became in reality an independent barbarian 
kingdom, like those which had already been set up in the other 
countries of the West. The transaction marks not only the end 
of the line of Western Roman emperors, but also the virtual ex- 
tinction of the imperial rule in the western provinces of the Empire 
— the culmination of a century-long process of dissolution. 

This gradual transfer of leadership from the failing Roman race 
to the new barbarian folk was one of the most momentous revolu- 
tions in European history. It brought it about that the lamp of 



232 THE LAST CENTURY IN THE WEST [§ 335 

culture, which since the second century of the Empire had burned 
with ever lessening light, was almost extinguished. It ushered in 
the so-called " Dark Ages." 

But the revolution meant much besides disaster and loss. It 
meant the enrichment of civilization through the incoming of a 
new and splendidly endowed race. Within the Empire during sev- 
eral centuries three of the most vital elements of civilization, the 
Greek, the Roman, and the Christian, had been gradually blend- 
ing. Now was added a fourth factor, the Teutonic. It is this 
element which has had much to do in making modern civilization 
richer and more progressive than any preceding civilization. 

The downfall of the Roman imperial government in the West 
was, further, an event of immense significance in the political 
world, for the reason that it rendered possible the growth in western 
Europe of several nations or states in place of the single Empire. 

Another consequence of the fall of Rome was the development of 
the Papacy. In the absence of an emperor in the West the popes 
rapidly gained influence and power, and soon built up an ecclesias- 
tical empire that in some respects took the place of the old Roman 
Empire and carried on its civilizing work. 

References. Tacitus, Germania (the most valuable original account that 
we possess of the tribal life and customs of the Germans about the first century 
of our era). Hodgkin, T., Italy and her Invaders, vols, i, ii (on the Visigothic, 
the Hunnish, and the Vandal invasion). Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman 
History, pp. 557-572. DlLL, S., Roman Society in the Last Centuiy of the 
Western Empire (a book of unsurpassed value). Curteis, A. M., History of the 
Roman Empire (from 395 to 800 a.d.), chaps, vi-ix. Gibbon, E., chap, ix, 
" The State of Germany till the Invasion of the Barbarians in the Time of the 
Emperor Decius." Church, W. R., The Beginnings of the Middle Ages; read 
the introduction and chap. i. Kingsley, C, The Roman and the Teuton, lects. 
i-iii. Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of the World, chap, vi, " The Battle of 
Chalons, 451 a.d." Emerton, E., An Introdtiction to the Study of the Middle 
Ages, chaps, ii, iii. (These chapters cover admirably the following subjects : 
" The Two Races," " The Breaking of the Frontier by the Visigoths," and 
" The Invasion of the Huns.") The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i, chaps, 
viii-xiv, xix, xx. For the causes of the failure of the Empire in the West, see 
the following: Hodgkin, T., Italy and her Invaders, vol. ii, pp. 532-613; 
Seeley, J. R., Roman Imperialism, lect. ii, pp. 37-64; Bury, J. B., A History 
of the Later Roman Empire^ vol. i, chap. iii. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE, LAW, AND SOCIAL LIFE 
AMONG THE ROMANS 

I. ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING 

336. Rome's Contribution to Architecture. The architecture 
of the Romans was, in the main, an imitation of Greek models. 
But the Romans were not mere servile imitators. They not only 
modified the architectural forms they borrowed but they gave their 
structures a distinct character by the prominent use of the arch, 
which the Greek and oriental builders seldom employed, though 
they were acquainted with its principle. By means of it the 
Roman builders gave a new artistic effect to edifices, vaulted wide 
passages and chambers, carried stupendous aqueducts across the 
deepest valleys, and spanned the broadest streams with bridges 
that have resisted all the assaults of time and flood for eighteen 
centuries and more down to the present day. These applications 
of the principle of the arch were the great contribution which the 
Roman architects made to the science and art of building. 

337. Amphitheaters. The Romans borrowed the plan of their 
theaters from the Greeks ; their amphitheaters, however, were 
original with them. The Flavian amphitheater, generally desig- 
nated as the Colosseum, to which reference has already been made, 
speaks to us perhaps more impressively of the spirit of a past 
civilization than any other memorial of the ancient world. The 
ruins of this immense structure stand today as u the embodiment 
of the power and splendor of the Roman Empire." 

Many of the most important cities of Italy and of the provinces 
were provided with amphitheaters similar in all essential respects 
to the Colosseum at the capital only much inferior in size, save the 
one at Capua, which was nearly as large as the Flavian structure. 

233 



234 



ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING 



[§338 



338. Aqueducts. The aqueducts of ancient Rome were among 
the most important of the utilitarian works of the Romans. The 
water system of the capital was commenced by Appius Claudius 
(about 313 b.c). During the Republic four aqueducts in all were 
completed ; under the emperors the number was increased to 
fourteen. 1 The longest of these was about fifty-five miles in 




Fig. 76. The Colosseum. (From a photograph) 

Monument of the glory of the Empire, and of its shame. — Dill 

length. The aqueducts usually ran beneath the surface, but when 
a depression was to be crossed they were lifted on arches, which 
sometimes were over one hundred feet high. 2 These lofty arches 
running in long, broken lines over the plains beyond the walls 
of Rome are today the most striking feature of the Campagna. 

339. Thermae, or Baths. Among the ancient Romans bathing 
became in time a luxurious art. Under the Republic bathing 
houses were erected in considerable numbers. But it was during 
the imperial period that those magnificent structures to which the 

1 Several of these are still in use. 

2 The Romans carried their aqueducts across depressions and valleys on high 
arches of masonry, not because they were ignorant of the principle that water seeks 
a level, but for the reason that they could not make large pipes strong enough to 
resist the very great pressure to which they would be subjected 




o 
w 






§340] ROMAN LITERATURE 235 

name Thermos properly attaches, were erected. These edifices 
were among the most elaborate and expensive of the imperial 
works. They contained chambers for cold, hot, and swimming 
baths ; dressing rooms and gymnasia ; museums and libraries ; 
covered colonnades for lounging and conversation ; and every 
other adjunct that could add to the sense of luxury and relaxa- 
tion. 1 Being intended to exhibit the liberality of their builders, 
they were thrown open to the public free of charge. 

II. LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAW 

340. Relation of Roman to Greek Literature : the Poets of 
the Republican Era. Latin literature was almost wholly imitative 
or borrowed, being a reproduction of Greek models ; nevertheless it 
performed a most important service for civilization: it was the 
medium for the dissemination throughout the world of the rich 
literary treasures of Greece. 

It was the dramatic works of the Greeks which were first 
studied and copied at Rome. Plautus and Terence (who wrote 
under the later Republic) are the most noted of the Roman drama- 
tists. Most of their plays were simply adaptations of Greek pieces. 

During the later republican era there appeared two eminent 
poets, Lucretius and Catullus. Lucretius was an evolutionist, and 
in his great poem On the Nature of Things we find anticipated 
many of the conclusions of modern scientists. Catullus was a lyric 
poet. He has been called the Roman Burns, as well on account of 
the waywardness of his life as from the sweetness of his song. 

341. Poets of the Augustan Age. Three poets — Vergil (70- 
19 b.c), Horace (65-8 B.C.), and Ovid (43 b.c.-a.d. 18) — have 
cast an unfading luster over the period covered by the reign of Au- 
gustus. So distinguished have these writers rendered the age in 
which they lived, that any period in a people's literature signalized 
by exceptional literary taste and refinement is called, in allusion 
to this Roman era, an Augustan Age. 

1 Lanciani calls these imperial Thermae " gigantic clubhouses, whither the volup- 
tuary and the elegant youth repaired for pastime and enjoyment." 



236 LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAW [§ 342 

342. Oratory among the Romans. "Public oratory," as has 
been truly said, "is the child of political freedom, and cannot exist 
without it." We have seen this illustrated in the history of the 
democratic cities of Greece (sect. 205). Equally well is it shown 
by records of the Roman state. All the great orators of Rome 
arose under the Republic. Among these Hortensius (114-50 B.C.), 
a learned jurist, and Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B - c -) stand 
preeminent. Of these two Cicero is easily first, — "the most elo- 
quent of all the sons of Romulus." 1 

343. Latin Historians. Ancient Rome produced four writers 
of history whose works have won for them a permanent fame, — 
Caesar, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. Of Caesar and his Commen- 
taries on the Gallic War we have learned in a previous chapter. 
His Commentaries will always be cited along with the Anabasis 
of Xenophon as a model of the narrative style of writing. Sallust 
(86-34 B.C.) was the contemporary and friend of Caesar. The 
Conspiracy of Catiline is one of his chief works. 

Livy (59B.C.-A.D. 17) was one of the brightest ornaments of 
the Augustan Age. Herodotus among the ancient, and Macaulay 
among the modern, writers of historical narrative are the names 
with which his is oftenest compared. His greatest work is his 
Annals, a history of Rome from the earliest times to the year 9 B.C. 
Unfortunately, only thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two 
books 2 of this admirable production have been preserved. Many 
have been the laments over "the lost books of Livy." As a chron- 
icle of actual events, Livy's history, particularly in its earlier 
parts, is very unreliable ; however, it is invaluable as an account 
of what the Romans themselves believed respecting the origin of 
their race, the founding of their city, and the deeds and virtues 
of their forefathers. 

1 Even more highly prized than his orations are his letters, for Cicero was a most 
delightful letter writer. His letters to his friend Atticus are among the most charming 
specimens of that species of composition. 

2 It should be borne in mind that a book in the ancient sense was simply a roll of 
manuscript or parchment, and contained nothing like the amount of matter held by an 
ordinary modern volume. Thus Cssar's Gallic Wars, which makes a single volume of 
moderate size with us, made eight Roman books. 



§344] SCIENCE, ETHICS, AND PHILOSOPHY 237 

The most highly prized work of Tacitus is his Germania, a 
treatise on the manners and customs of the Germans. In this work 
Tacitus sets in strong contrast the virtues of the untutored 
Germans and the vices of the cultured Romans. 

344. Science, Ethics, and Philosophy. Under this head may 
be grouped the names of Seneca, Pliny the Elder, Marcus Aurelius, 
and Epictetus. 

Seneca (about a.d. 1-65), moralist and philosopher, has already 
come to our notice as the tutor of Nero (sect. 301). He was a 
disbeliever in the popular religion of his countrymen, and enter- 
tained conceptions of God and his moral government not very 
different from those of Socrates. 

Pliny the Elder (a.d. 23-79) is almost the only Roman who won 
renown as an investigator of the phenomena of nature. The only 
work of his that has been spared to us is his Natural History, a 
sort of Roman encyclopedia. 

Marcus Aurelius the emperor and Epictetus the slave hold the 
first place among the ethical teachers of Rome. They were the 
last eminent representatives of the philosophy of the Stoics. 

345. Writers of the Early Latin Church. The Christian au- 
thors of the first two centuries, like the writers of the New Testa- 
ment, employed the Greek, that being the language of learning 
and culture. As the Latin tongue, however, gradually came into 
more general use throughout the West, the Christian writers 
naturally began to use it in the composition of their works. Hence 
almost all the writings of the Fathers of the Church produced in 
the western half of the Empire during the later imperial period 
were composed in Latin. Among the many names that adorn the 
Church literature of this period must be mentioned St. Jerome 
and St. Augustine. 

Jerome (a.d. 342 ?-42o) is held in memory especially through 
his translation of the Scriptures into Latin. This version is known 
as the Vulgate, and is the one which, with slight changes, is still 
used in the Roman Catholic Church. "It was to Europe of the 
Middle Ages," asserts an eminent authority, "more than Homer 
was to Greece." 

PA 



238 LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAW [§ 346 

Aurelius Augustine (a.d. 354-430) was born near Carthage, in 
Africa. His City of God, a truly wonderful work, possesses a 
special interest for the historian. The book was written just when 
Rome was becoming the spoil of the barbarians. It was designed 
to answer the charge of the pagans that Christianity, turning the 
people away from the worship of the~aneient gods, was the cause 
of the calamities that were befalling the Roman state. 

346. Roman Law and Law Literature. Although the Latin 
writers in all the departments of literary effort which we have so 
far reviewed did much valuable work, yet the Roman intellect in 
all these directions was under Greek guidance. .But in another 
department it was different. We mean, of course, the field of legal 
or juristic science. Here the Romans ceased to be pupils and 
became teachers. Nations, like men, have their mission. Rome's 
mission was to give laws to the world. 

In the year 527 of the Christian era Justinian became emperor 
of the Roman Empire in the East. He almost immediately ap- 
pointed a commission, headed by the great lawyer Tribonian, to 
collect and arrange in a systematic manner the immense mass of 
Roman laws and the writings of the jurists. The undertaking was 
like that of the decemvirs in connection with the Twelve Tables, 
only far greater. The result of the work of the commission was 
what is known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, or " Body of the Civil 
Law." This consisted of three parts, — the Code, the Pandects, and 
the Institutes. The Code was a revised and compressed collection 
of all the laws, instructions to judicial officers, and opinions on 
legal subjects promulgated by the different emperors since the time 
of Hadrian ; the Pandects (all-containing) were a digest or abridg- 
ment of the writings, opinions, and decisions of the most eminent 
of the old Roman jurists and lawyers. The Institutes were a con- 
densed edition of the Pandects, and were intended tto form an 
elementary textbook for the use of students. 

The body of the Roman law thus preserved and transmitted 
was the great contribution of the Latin intellect to civilization. It 
has exerted a profound influence upon the law systems of almost 
all the European peoples. Thus does the once little Palatine city 



§ 347] EDUCATION 239 

of the Tiber still rule the world. The religion of Judea, the arts 
of Greece, and the laws of Rome are three very real and potent 
elements in modern civilization. 

III. SOCIAL LIFE 

347. Education. Under the Republic there were no public 
schools in Rome ; education was a private affair. Under the early 
Empire a mixed system prevailed, there being both public and 
private schools. Later, education came more completely under the 
supervision of the state. The salaries of the teachers and lecturers 
were usually paid by the municipalities, but sometimes from the 
imperial chest. 

The education of the Roman boy differed from that of the 
Greek youth in being more practical. The laws of the Twelve 
Tables were committed to memory ; and rhetoric and oratory were 
given special attention, as a mastery of the art of public speaking 
was an almost indispensable acquirement for the Roman citizen 
who aspired to take a prominent part in the affairs of state. 

After their conquest of Magna Graecia and Greece the Romans 
were brought into closer relations with Greek culture than had 
hitherto existed. The Roman youth were taught the language of 
Athens, often to the neglect, it appears, of their native tongue. 
Young men belonging to families of means not unusually went to 
Greece, just as the graduates of our schools go to Europe, to finish 
their education. Many of the most prominent statesmen of Rome, 
as, for instance, Cicero and Julius Caesar, received the advantages 
of this higher training in the schools of Greece. 

Somewhere between the ages of fourteen and eighteen the boy 
exchanged his purple-hemmed toga, or gown, for one of white wool, 
which was in all places and at all times the significant badge of 
Roman citizenship and Roman equality. 

348. Social Position of Woman. Until after her marriage the 
daughter of the family was kept in almost oriental seclusion. Mar- 
riage gave her a certain freedom. She might now be present at 
the races of the circus and the shows of the theater and amphi- 
theater, — a privilege rarely accorded to her before marriage. 



240 SOCIAL LIFE [§ 349 

In the early virtuous period of the Roman state the wife and 
mother held a dignified and assured position in the household, and 
divorces were unusual, there being no instance of one, it is said, 
until the year 231 B.C.; but in later times her position became 
less honored and divorce grew to be very common. The husband 
had the right to divorce his wife for the slightest cause or for no 
cause at all. In this disregard of the sanctity of the family relation 
may doubtless be found one cause of the degeneracy and failure 
of the Roman stock. 

349. Public Amusements ; the Theater and the Circus. The 
entertainments of the theater, the games of the circus, and the 
combats of the amphitheater were the three principal public 
amusements of the Romans. These entertainments, in general, 
increased in popularity as liberty declined, the great festive gather- 
ings at the various places of amusement taking the place of the 
political assemblies of the Republic. 

Tragedy was never held in high esteem at Rome ; the people 
saw too much real tragedy in the exhibitions of the amphitheater 
to care much for the make-believe tragedies of the stage. The 
entertainments of the theaters usually took the form of comedies, 
farces, and pantomimes. The last were particularly popular, both 
because the vast size of the theaters made it quite impossible for 
the actor to make his voice heard throughout the structure and 
for the reason that the language of signs was the only language 
that could be readily understood by an audience made up of so 
many different nationalities as composed a Roman assemblage. 
Almost from the beginning the Roman stage was gross and immoral. 
It was one of the main agencies to which must be attributed the 
undermining of the originally sound moral life of Roman society. 

More important and more popular than the entertainments of 
the theater were the various games of the circus, especially the 
chariot races. 

350. Gladiatorial Combats. But far surpassing in their terrible 
fascination all other public amusements were the gladiatorial com- 
bats of the amphitheater. These seem to have had their origin in 
Etruria, whence they were brought to Rome. It was a custom 



§350] 



GLADIATORIAL COMBATS 



241 



among the early Etruscans to slay prisoners upon the warrior's 
grave, it being thought that the manes of the dead delighted in 
the blood of such victims. In later times the prisoners were 
allowed to fight and kill one another, this being deemed more 
humane than slaying them in cold blood. 

The first gladiatorial spectacle at Rome was presented by two 
sons at the funeral of their father in the year 264 b.c. From this 
time the public taste for 
this species of enter- 
tainment grew rapidly, 
and by the beginning 
of the imperial period 
had become a perfect 
infatuation. It was now 
no longer the manes of 
the dead, but the spirits 
of the living that the 
spectacles were intended 
to appease. At first the 
combatants were slaves, 
captives, or condemned 
criminals ; but at last 
knights, senators, and 

even women descended voluntarily into the arena. Training 
schools were established at Rome and in other cities. Free citizens 
often sold themselves to the keepers of these seminaries ; and to 
them flocked desperate men of all classes and ruined spendthrifts 
of the noblest patrician houses. Slaves and criminals were en- 
couraged to become proficient in the art by the promise of freedom 
if they survived the combats beyond a certain number of years. 

Sometimes the gladiators fought in pairs ; again, great com- 
panies engaged at once in the deadly fray. They fought in chariots, 
on horseback, on foot, — in all the ways that soldiers were accus- 
tomed to fight in actual battle. The life of a wounded gladiator 
was, in ordinary cases, in the hands of the audience. If in response 
to his appeal for mercy, which was made by outstretching the 




Fig. 78. 



Gladiators. (From an ancient 
mosaic) 



242 SOCIAL LIFE [§ 351 

forefinger, the spectators waved their handkerchiefs or reached 
out their hands with thumbs extended, that indicated that his 
prayer had been heard ; but if they extended their hands with 
thumbs turned in, that was the signal for the victor to give him 
the death stroke. 

The rivalries between ambitious leaders during the later years 
of the Republic tended greatly to increase the number of gladia- 
torial shows, as liberality in arranging these spectacles was a sure 
passport to popular favor : magistrates were expected to give them 
in connection with the public festivals ; the heads of aspiring 
families exhibited them "in order to acquire social position"; 
wealthy citizens prepared them as an indispensable feature of a 
fashionable banquet ; the children caught the spirit of their elders 
and imitated them in their plays. It was reserved for the em- 
perors, however, to exhibit them on a truly imperial scale. Titus, 
upon the dedication of the Flavian amphitheater, provided games, 
mostly gladiatorial combats, that lasted one hundred days. Trajan 
celebrated his victories with shows that continued still longer, 
in the progress of which ten thousand gladiators fought upon 
the arena. 1 

351. Luxury. By luxury, as we shall use the word, we mean 
extravagant and self-indulgent living. This vice seems to have 
been almost unknown in early Rome. The primitive Romans 
were men of frugal habits, who found contentment in poverty 
and disdained riches. A great change, however, as we have seen, 
passed over Roman society after the conquest of the East and the 
development of the corrupt provincial system of the later Re- 
public. The colossal fortunes quickly and dishonestly amassed by 
the ruling class marked the incoming at Rome of such a reign of 
luxury as perhaps no other capital of the world ever witnessed. 
This luxury was at its height in the last century of the Republic 
and the first of the Empire. Never perhaps has great wealth been 
more grossly misused than during this period at Rome. A char- 
acteristically Roman vice of this age was gluttony, or gross 
table-indulgence. 

1 For the suppression of the gladiatorial games, see sect. 328. 



§352] STATE DISTRIBUTION OF CORN 243 

352. State Distribution of Corn. The free distribution of corn 
at Rome has been characterized as the "leading fact of Roman 
life." It will be recalled that this pernicious practice had its 
beginnings in the legislation of Gaius Gracchus (sect. 275). Just 
before the establishment of the Empire over three hundred thou- 
sand Roman citizens were recipients of this state bounty. The 
corn for this enormous distribution was derived, in large part, from 
a grain tribute exacted of the African and other corn-producing 
provinces. In the third century, to the largesses of corn were added 
doles of oil, wine, and pork. 

The evils that resulted from this misdirected state charity can 
hardly be overstated. Idleness and all its accompanying vices 
were fostered to such a degree that we probably shall not be wrong 
in citing the practice as one of the chief causes of the demoraliz- 
ation of society at Rome under the emperors. 

353. Slavery. The number of slaves under the later Republic 
and the earlier Empire was very great, some estimates making it 
equal to the number of freemen. Some large proprietors owned as 
many as twenty thousand. The love of ostentation led to the 
multiplication of offices in the households of the wealthy and the 
employment of a special slave for every different kind of work. 
Thus, in some families there was kept a slave whose sole duty it 
was to care for his master's sandals. The price of slaves varied 
from a few dollars to ten or twenty thousand dollars, — these last 
figures being of course exceptional. Greek slaves were the most 
valuable, as their lively intelligence rendered them serviceable in 
positions calling for special talent. 

The slave class was chiefly recruited, as in Greece, by war and 
by the practice of kidnaping. Some of the outlying provinces 
in Asia and Africa were almost depopulated by the slave hunters. 
Delinquent taxpayers were often sold as slaves, and frequently 
poor persons sold themselves into servitude. 

The feeling entertained toward this unfortunate class in the 
later republican period is illustrated by Varro's classification of 
slaves as "vocal agricultural implements," and again by Cato the 
Censor's recommendation to masters to sell their old and decrepit 



244 SOCIAL LIFE [§ 353 

slaves in order to save the expense of caring for them. In many 
cases, as a measure of precaution, the slaves were forced to work 
in chains and to sleep in subterranean prisons. Their bitter hatred 
toward their masters, engendered by harsh treatment, is witnessed 
by the well-known proverb, "As many enemies as slaves," and 
by the servile revolts of the republican period. 

Slaves were treated better under the Empire than under the 
later Republic, — a change to be attributed doubtless to the influ- 
ence of Stoicism and of Christianity. From the first century of 
the Empire forward there is observable a growing sentiment of 
humanity toward the bondsman. Imperial edicts took away from 
the master the right to kill his slave or to sell him to the trader 
in gladiators, or even to treat him with undue severity, while the 
Christian priests encouraged the freeing of slaves as an act good 
for the soul of the master. 

Besides the teachings of philosophy and religion other influences, 
social and economic, were at work ameliorating the lot of the slave, 
and gradually changing the harsh system of slavery as it had 
developed in the ancient world into the milder system of serfdom, 
which characterized the society and life of the Middle Ages. This 
great revolution, perhaps more than any other single change, 
marked the transformation of the ancient into the mediaeval world 
and announced the opening of a new epoch in history. 

References. Lanciani, R., Ancie?it Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries 
and New Discoveries in the Forum. Fowler, H. N., History of Roman Liter- 
ature. Sellar, W. Y., The Roman Poets of the Republic and The Roman Poets 
of the Augustan Age, 2 vols. Hadley, J«, Introduction to Roman Law, lect. iii, 
" The Roman Law before Justinian." Gibbon, E., chap, xliv (for Roman juris- 
prudence ; this chapter is one of the most noted of Gibbon's great work). 
Inge, W. R., Social Life in Rome under the C&sars. Dill, S., Roman Society in 
the Last Century of the Western Empire (read bk. v, " Characteristics of Roman 
Education and Culture in the Fifth Century "). Preston, H. W., and Dodge, 
L., The P7-ivate Life of the Romans. GlLMAN, A., The Story of Rome, chap, xviii, 
" Some Manners and Customs of the Roman People." Johnston, H. W., The 
Private Life of the Romans. Friedlander, L., Roman Life and Manners, 
3 vols. Davis, W. S., The Influeiice of Wealth in Imperial Rome. Abbott, F. F., 
The Common People of Ancient Rome. 



DIVISION IV. THE ROMANO-GERMAN OR 
TRANSITION AGE 

(A.D. 476-800) 

CHAPTER XXXV 

THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 

In connection with the history of the break-up of the Roman 
Empire in the West we have already given some account of the 
migrations and settlements of the Teutonic tribes. In the present 
chapter we shall indicate briefly the political fortunes, for the two 
centuries and more following the dissolution of the Roman govern- 
ment in the West, of the principal kingdoms set up by the Teutonic 
chieftains in the different parts of the old Empire. 

354. Kingdom of the Ostrogoths (a. d. 493-554). Odoacer will 
be recalled as the barbarian chief who dethroned the last of the 
Western Roman emperors (sect. 335). His rule, which lasted only 
seventeen years, was brought to an end by the invasion of the 
Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) under Theodoric, the greatest of their 
chiefs, who set up in Italy a new dominion known as the kingdom 
of the Ostrogoths. 

The reign of Theodoric covered thirty-three years (a.d. 493- 
527) — years of such quiet and prosperity as Italy had not known 
since the happy era of the Antonines. The king made good his 
promise that his reign should be such that "the only regret of 
the people should be that the Goths had not come at an earlier 
period." His effort was to preserve Roman civilization, and to this 
end he repaired the old Roman roads, restored the monuments of 
the Empire that were falling into decay, and in so far as possible 
maintained Roman law and custom. 

SA 245 



246 THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS L§ 355 

The kingdom established by the rare abilities of Theodoric lasted 
only twenty-seven years after his death. Justinian, emperor of 
the East, taking advantage of that event, sent his generals to 
deliver Italy from the rule of the barbarians. The last of the 
Ostrogothic kings fell in battle, and Italy, with her fields rav- 
aged and her cities in ruins, was for a brief time reunited to 
the Empire. 

355. Kingdom of the Visigoths (a.d. 415-711). The Visigoths 
(Western Goths) were already in possession of southern Gaul and 
the greater part of Spain when the Roman imperial government 
in the West was brought to an end by the act of Odoacer and his 
companions. They were driven south of the Pyrenees by the kings 
of the Franks, but held their possessions in Spain until the begin- 
ning of the eighth century, when their rule was ended by the 
Saracens (sect. 393). By this time the conquerors had mingled 
with the old Romanized inhabitants of Spain, so that in the veins 
of the Spaniard of today is blended the blood of Iberian, Celt, 
Roman, and Teuton, together with that of the last intruder, the 
African Moor. 

356. Kingdom of the Vandals (a.d. 429-533). We have already 
spoken of the establishment in North Africa of the kingdom of the 
Vandals, and told how, under the lead of their king Geiseric, they 
bore in triumph down the Tiber the heavy spoils of Rome (sect. 
334) . Being Arian Christians, the Vandals persecuted with furious 
zeal the orthodox party. Moved by the entreaties of the. African 
Catholics, the Byzantine emperor Justinian sent his general Beli- 
sarius to drive the barbarians from Africa. The expedition was 
successful, and Carthage and the fruitful fields of Africa were 
restored to the Empire after having suffered the insolence of the 
barbarian conquerors for the space of above a hundred years. 
The Vandals remaining in the country were gradually absorbed 
by the old Roman population, and after a few generations no 
certain trace of the barbarian invaders could be detected in the 
physical appearance, the language, or the customs of the inhabit- 
ants of the African coast. The Vandal nation had disappeared ; 
the name alone remained. 



§ 357] THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROVINGIANS 247 

357. The Franks under the Merovingians 1 (a. d. 486-752). 
Even long before the fall of Rome the Franks, as we have seen 
(sect. 331), were on the soil of Gaul, laying there the foundations 
of the French nation and monarchy. Among their several chieftains 
at this time was Clovis. As the Roman power declined, Clovis 
gradually extended his authority over a great part of Gaul, reduc- 
ing to the condition of tributaries the various Teutonic tribes that 
had taken possession of different portions of the country. Upon 
his death (a.d. 511) his extensive dominions, in accordance with 
the ancient Teutonic law of inheritance, were divided among his 
four sons. About a century and a half of discord followed, by 
the end of which time the Merovingians had become so feeble and 
inefficient that they were pushed aside by an ambitious officer 
of the crown, known as Mayor of the Palace, and a new royal 
line — the Carolingian — was established. 

358. Kingdom of the Lombards (a.d. 568-774). Barely a dec- 
ade had passed after the recovery of Italy from the Ostrogoths by 
the Eastern emperor Justinian, before a large part of the peninsula 
was again lost to the Empire through its conquest by another 
barbarian tribe known as the Lombards. 

The kingdom of the Lombards was destroyed by Charles the 
Great, the most noted of the Frankish rulers, in the year 774 ; but 
the blood of the invaders had by this time become intermingled 
with that of the former subjects of the Empire, so that throughout 
all that part of the peninsula which is still called Lombardy after 
them, one will today occasionally see the fair hair and light com- 
plexion which reveal the strain of German blood in, the veins of 
the present inhabitants. 

359. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain. We have already seen how 
in the time of Rome's distress the barbarians secured a footing in 
Britain (sect. 331). The conquerors of Britain belonged to three 
Teutonic tribes, — the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, — but among the 
Celts they all passed under the name of Saxons, and among them- 
selves, after they began to draw together into a single nation, under 
that of Angles, whence the name England (Angle-land). 

1 So called from Merowig, an early chieftain of the race. 



248 THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS [§360 

By the close of the sixth century the invading bands had set 
up in the island eight or nine, or perhaps more, kingdoms, — fre- 
quently designated, though somewhat inaccurately, as the Hep- 
tarchy. For the space of two hundred years there was an almost 
perpetual strife for supremacy among the leading states. Finally, 
Egbert, king of Wessex (a.d. 802-839), brought all the other 
kingdoms to a subject or tributary condition, and became in 
reality, though he seems never, save on one occasion, to have 
actually assumed the title, the first king of England. 

360. Teutonic Tribes outside the Empire. We have now 
spoken of the most important of the Teutonic tribes which forced 
themselves within the limits of the Roman Empire in the West, 
and which there, upon the ruins of the civilization they had over- 
thrown, laid or helped to lay the foundations of the modern nations 
of Italy, Spain, France, and England. Beyond the boundaries of 
the old Empire were still other tribes and clans of this same mighty 
family of nations — tribes and clans that were destined to play 
great parts in European history. 

On the east, beyond the Rhine, were the ancestors of the 
modern Germans. Notwithstanding the immense hosts that the 
forests and morasses of Germany had poured into the Roman 
provinces, the western portion of the fatherland, in the sixth cen- 
tury of our era, seemed still as crowded as before the great migra- 
tion began. These tribes were yet barbarians in manners and, for 
the most part, pagans in religion. In the northwest of Europe 
were the Scandinavians, the ancestors of the modern Danes, 
Swedes, and Norwegians. They were as yet untouched either 
by the civilization or the religion of Rome. 

References. Hodgkin, T., Italy and her Invaders and Tkeodoric the Goth 
(Hodgkin is recognized as the best authority on the period of the migration). 
Villari, P., The Barbarian Invasions of Italy.- Gummere, F. B., Germanic 
Origins (an authoritative and interesting work on the early culture of the Ger- 
mans). Gibbon, E., chaps, xxxviii, xxxix. Church, R. W., The Beginning of 
the Middle Ages, chaps, i-v. Emerton, E., An Introduction to the Study of the 
Middle Ages, chaps, vi, vii. The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i, chap, xv ; 
vol. ii, chaps, iv-vii. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS 

I. THE CONVERSION OF THE BARBARIANS 

361. Introductory. The most important event in the history 
of the tribes that took possession of the Roman Empire in the 
West was their conversion to Christianity. Many of the bar- 
barians were converted before or soon after their entrance into the 
Empire ; to this circumstance the Roman provinces owed their 
immunity from the excessive cruelties which pagan barbarians 
seldom fail to inflict upon a subjected enemy. Alaric left un- 
touched the treasures of the churches of the Roman Christians 
because his own faith was also Christian (sect. 329). For like 
reason the Vandal king Geiseric yielded to the prayers of Pope Leo 
the Great and promised to leave to the inhabitants of the imperial 
city their lives (sect. 334). The more tolerable fate of Italy, 
Spain, and Gaul, as compared with the hard fate of Britain, is 
owing, in part at least, to the fact that the tribes which overran 
those countries had become, in the main, converts to Christianity 
before they crossed the boundaries of the Empire, while the Saxons, 
when they entered Britain, were still untamed pagans. 

362. Conversion of the Franks ; Importance of this Event. 
The Franks when they entered the Empire, like the Angles and 
Saxons when they landed in Britain, were still pagans. Christianity 
gained way very slowly among them until a supposed interposition 
by the Christian God in their behalf in a desperate battle led the 
king and nation to adopt the new religion in place of their 
old faith. 

"The conversion of the Franks," says the historian Milman, 
"was the most important event in its remote as well as its 
immediate consequences in European histqry." It was of such 

249 



250 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§363 

moment for the reason that the Franks embraced the ortho- 
dox Catholic faith, while almost all the other Teutonic invaders 
of the Empire had embraced the heretical Arian creed. This 
secured them the loyalty of their Roman subjects and also gained 
for them the official favor of the Church of Rome. Thus was laid 
the basis of the ascendancy in the West of the Frankish kings. 

363. Augustine's Mission to England. In the year 596 of the 
Christian era Pope Gregory I sent the monk Augustine with a 
band of forty companions to teach the Christian faith in Britain, 
in whose people he had become interested through seeing in the 
slave market at Rome some fair-faced captives from that remote 
region. 

The monks were favorably received by the English, who listened 
attentively to the story the strangers had come to tell them ; and, 
being persuaded that the tidings were true, they burned the tem- 
ples of Woden and Thor, and were in large numbers baptized in 
the Christian faith. 1 One of the most important consequences of 
the conversion of Britain was the reestablishment of that connec- 
tion of the island with Roman civilization which had been severed 
by the calamities of the fifth century. As the historian Green 
says, — he is speaking of the embassy of St. Augustine, — "The 
march of the monks as they chanted their solemn litany was in one 
sense a return of the Roman legions who withdrew at the trumpet 
call of Alaric. . . . Practically Augustine's landing renewed that 
union with the western world which the landing of Hengist had 
destroyed. The new England was admitted into the older common- 
wealth of nations. The civilization, art, letters, which had fled 
before the sword of the English conquerors, returned with the 
Christian faith." 

364. The Conversion of Ireland ; Iona. The spiritual con- 
quest of Ireland was effected largely by a zealous priest named 
Patricius (d. about a.d. 469), better known as St. Patrick, the 
patron saint of Ireland. With such success were his labors 

1 Read the story in Bede's Ecclesiastical History, ii, 13 (Bohn). Bede the Venerable 
(about a.d. 673-735) was a pious and learned Northumbrian monk, who wrote, among 
other works, an invaluable one entitled Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (" The 
Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation"). 




§365] THE CONVERSION OF GERMANY 251 

attended that by the time of his death a great part of the island 
had embraced the Christian faith. Never did any race receive the 
Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm. The Irish or Celtic Church 
sent out its devoted missionaries into the Pictish highlands, into the 
forests of Germany, and among the wilds of Alps and Apennines. 
Among the numerous religious houses founded by the Celtic 
missionaries was the famous monastery established a.d. 563 by 
the Irish monk St. Columba, on the little isle of Iona, just off 

the western coast _. 

' — rS 
of Scotland. Iona _. -> '""$_ -*^ 

became a most re- aVu 

nowned center of ~ J "'^fm^^W$^-"\l& 

Christian learning J -A^^^gl^^ 

and missionary zeal, ^^^_ 

and for almost two "~" "^ ' 

centuries was the Fig. 79. The Ruins of Iona. (After an 

point from which ra- old drawing) 

diated light through That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would 

the darkness Of the n0t ff in f ° rCe Up ° n the P ' ain ° f Marathon, or whose piety 
would not grow warmer among the rums of Iona. — Dr. 
SUrrOUnding hea- JOHNSON, A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland 

thenism. 

365. The Conversion of Germany. The great apostle of Ger- 
many was the Saxon Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface. 
During a long and intensely active life he founded schools and 
monasteries, organized churches, preached and baptized, and at 
last died a martyr's death (a.d. 753). Through him, as says Mil- 
man, the Saxon invasion of England flowed back upon the 
Continent. 

The Christianizing of the tribes of Germany relieved the Teu- 
tonic folk of western Europe from the constant peril of massacre 
by their heathen kinsmen, and erected a strong barrier in central 
Europe against the advance of the waves of Turanian paganism 
and Mohammedanism which for centuries beat so threateningly 
against the eastern frontiers of Germany. 1 

1 The story of the conversion of the Scandinavian peoples, of the Eastern Slavs, and 
of the Hungarians belongs to a later period than that embraced by our present survey. 



252 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§366 

II. THE RISE OF MONASTICISM 

366. Monasticism Defined ; Teachings that fostered its 
Growth. It was during the period between the third and the sixth 
century that there grew up in the Church the institution known as 
Monasticism. This term, in its widest application, denotes a life of 
austere self-denial and of seclusion from the world, with the object 
of promoting the interests of the soul. As thus defined, the system 
embraced two prominent classes of ascetics : ( i ) hermits or ancho- 
rites — persons who, retiring from the world, lived solitary lives 
in desolate places ; ( 2 ) cenobites or monks, who formed commu- 
nities and lived usually under a common roof. 

Christian asceticism was fostered by teachings drawn from 
various texts of the Bible. Thus the apostle St. Paul had said, "He 
that is unmarried careth for the things that belong to the Lord ; 
. . . but he that is married careth for the things that are of the 
world." 1 And Christ himself had declared, "If any man come to 
me, and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, 
and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be 
my disciple"; 2 and, again, he had said to the rich young man, 
"If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to 
the poor." 3 These passages, and others like them, taken literally, 
tended greatly to confirm the belief of the ascetic that his life of 
isolation and poverty and abstinence was the most perfect life 
and the surest way to win salvation. 

367. Monasticism in the West. During the fourth century the 
anchorite type of asceticism, which was favored by the mild 
climate of the Eastern lands and especially by that of Egypt, 
assumed in some degree the monastic form; that is to say, the 
fame of this or that anchorite or hermit drew about him a number 
of disciples, whose rude huts or cells formed what was known as 
a laura, the nucleus of a monastery. 

Soon after the cenobite system had been established in the 
East it was introduced into Europe, and in an astonishingly short 
space of time spread throughout all the Western countries where 

1 1 Cor. vii. 32, 33. 2 Luke xiv. 26. 3 Matt. xix. 21. 



§368] THE RULE OF ST. BENEDICT 253 

Christianity had gained a foothold. Here it prevailed to the almost 
total exclusion of the hermit mode of life. Monasteries arose on 
every side. The number that fled to these retreats was vastly 
augmented by the disorder and terror attending the invasion of 
the barbarians and the overthrow of the Empire in the West. 

368. The Rule of St. Benedict. With a view to introducing 
some sort of regularity into the practices and austerities of the 
monks, rules were early prescribed for their observance. The three 
essential vows of the monk were poverty, chastity, and obedience. 

The greatest legislator of the monks was St. Benedict of Nursia 
(a.d. 480-543), the founder of the celebrated monastery of Monte 
Cassino, situated midway between Rome and Naples in Italy. His 
code was to the religious world what the Corpus Juris Civilis of 
Justinian (sect. 346) was to the lay society of Europe. Many of 
his rules were most wise and practical, as, for instance, one that 
made manual work a pious duty, and another that directed the 
monk to spend an allotted time each day in sacred reading. 

The monks who subjected themselves to the rule of St. Benedict 
were known as Benedictines. The order became immensely popu- 
lar. At one time it embraced about forty thousand abbeys. 

369. Services Rendered by the Monks to Civilization. The 
early establishment of the monastic system in the Church resulted 
in great advantages to the new world that was shaping itself out 
of the ruins of the old. The monks, especially the Benedictines, 
became agriculturists, and by patient labor converted the wild and 
marshy lands which they received as gifts from princes and others 
into fruitful fields, thus redeeming from barrenness some of the 
most desolate districts of Europe. 

The monks also became missionaries, and it was largely to their 
zeal and devotion that the Church owed her speedy and signal 
victory over the barbarians. 

The quiet air of the monasteries nourished learning as well as 
piety.. The monks became teachers, and under the shelter of the 
monasteries established schools which were the nurseries of learn- 
ing during the earlier Middle Ages and the centers for centuries of 
the best intellectual life of Europe. 



2 54 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§370 

The monks also became copyists, and with great painstaking and 
industry gathered and multiplied ancient manuscripts, and thus 
preserved and transmitted to the modern world much classical 
learning and literature that would otherwise have been lost. Almost 

all the remains of the Greek and 
Latin classics that we possess 
have come to us through the 
agency of the monks. They be- 
came also the chroniclers of the 
events of their own times, so 
that it is to them we are indebted 
for a great part of our knowl- 
edge of the early mediaeval cen- 
turies. Thus the scriptorium, 
orwriting-roomofthemonastery, 
held the place in mediaeval soci- 
ety that the great publishing 
house holds in the modern world. 
The monks became, further, the almoners of the pious and the 
wealthy, and distributed alms to the poor and needy. Everywhere 
the monasteries opened their hospitable doors to the weary, the 
sick, and the discouraged. In a word, these retreats were the inns, 
the asylums, and the hospitals of the mediaeval ages. 




Fig. 80. A Monk Copyist. (From a 
manuscript of the fifteenth century) 



III. THE RISE OF THE PAPACY 

370. The Empire within the Empire. Long before the fall of 
Rome there had begun to grow up within the Roman Empire an 
ecclesiastical state, which in its constitution and its administrative 
system was shaping itself upon the imperial model. This spiritual 
empire, like the secular empire, possessed a hierarchy of officers, 
of whom deacons, priests or presbyters, and bishops were the 
most important. The bishops collectively formed what is known 
as the episcopate. There were four grades of bishops, namely, 
country bishops, city bishops, metropolitans (or archbishops), and 
patriarchs. At the end of the fourth century there were five 



§371] BELIEF IN THE PRIMACY OF ST. PETER 255 

patriarchates, that is, regions ruled by patriarchs. These centered 
in the great cities of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, 
and Jerusalem. 

Among the patriarchs, the patriarchs of Rome were accorded 
almost universally a precedence in honor and dignity. They 
claimed further a precedence in authority and jurisdiction, and 
this was already very widely recognized. Before the close of the 
eighth century there was firmly established over a great part of 
Christendom what we may call an ecclesiastical monarchy. 

Besides the influence of great men — such as Leo the Great, 
Gregory the Great, and Nicholas I — who held the seat of St. 
Peter, there were various historical circumstances that contributed 
to the realization by the Roman bishops of their claim to 
supremacy. In the following sections we shall enumerate several 
of these favoring circumstances. These matters constitute the 
great landmarks in the rise and early growth of the Papacy. 

371. The Belief in the Primacy of St. Peter and in the 
Founding by him of the Church at Rome. It came to be believed 
that the apostle Peter had been given by the Master a sort of 
primacy among his fellow apostles. It also came to be believed 
that Peter himself had founded the Church at Rome, and had 
suffered martyrdom there under the emperor Nero. These beliefs 
and interpretations of history, which make the Roman bishops the 
successors of Peter and the holders of his seat, contributed greatly 
to enhance their reputation and to justify their claim to a primacy 
of authority over all the dignitaries of the Church. 

372. Advantages of their Position at the Political Center of 
the World. The claims of the Roman bishops were in the early 
centuries greatly favored by the spell in which the world was held 
by the name and prestige of imperial Rome. Thence it had been 
accustomed to receive commands in all temporal matters ; how 
very natural, then, that thither it should turn for command and 
guidance in spiritual affairs. The Roman bishops in thus occupy- 
ing the geographical and political center of the world enjoyed a 
great advantage over all other bishops and patriarchs. The halo 
that during many centuries of wonderful history had gathered 



256 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§373 

about the Eternal City came naturally to invest with a kind of 
aureole the head of the Christian bishop. 

373. Effect of the Removal of the Imperial Government to 
Constantinople. Nor was this advantage that was given the 
Roman bishops by their position at Rome lost when the old capital 
ceased to be an imperial city. The removal, by the acts of Dio- 
cletian and Constantine, of the chief seat of the government to 
the East, instead of diminishing the power and dignity of the 
Roman bishops, tended greatly to promote their claims and au- 
thority. It left the pontiff the foremost personage in Rome. 

374. The Pastor as Protector of Rome. Again, when the bar- 
barians came, there came another occasion for the Roman bishops 
to widen their influence and enhance their authority. Rome's 
extremity was their opportunity. Thus it will be recalled how, 
mainly through the intercession of the pious Pope Leo the Great, 
the fierce Attila was persuaded to turn back and spare the imperial 
city (sect. 333) ; and how the same bishop, in the year 455 of the 
Christian era, also appeased in a measure the wrath of the Vandal 
Geiseric and shielded the inhabitants from the worst passions of 
a barbarian soldiery (sect. 334). 

Thus, when the emperors, the natural defenders of the capital, 
were unable to protect it, the unarmed pastor was able, through 
the awe and reverence inspired by his holy office, to render 
services that could not but result in bringing increased honor and 
dignity to the Roman See. 

375. Effects upon the Papacy of the Extinction of the Roman 
Empire in the West. But if the misfortunes of the Empire in the 
West tended to the enhancement of the reputation and influence of 
the Roman bishops, much more did its final downfall tend to the 
same end. Upon the surrender of the sovereignty of the West 
into the hands of the emperor of the East, the bishops of Rome 
became the most important personages in western Europe, and, 
being so far removed from the court at Constantinople, gradually 
assumed almost imperial powers. To them were referred for de- 
cision the disputes arising between cities, states, and kings. Espe- 
cially did the bishops and archbishops throughout the West in 



§376] THE MISSIONS OF ROME 257 

their contests with the Arian barbarian rulers look to Rome for 
advice and help. It is easy to see how greatly these things tended 
to strengthen the authority and increase the influence of the 
Roman bishops. 

376. The Missions of Rome. Again, the early missionary zeal 
of the Church of Rome made her the mother of many churches, 
all of whom looked up to her with affectionate and grateful 
loyalty. Thus the Angles and Saxons, won to the faith by the 
missionaries of Rome, conceived a deep veneration for the Holy 
See and became its most devoted children. To Rome it was that 
the Christian Britons made their most frequent pilgrimages, and 
thither they sent their offering of St. Peter's pence. And when 
the Saxons became missionaries to their pagan kinsmen of the 
Continent, they transplanted into the heart of Germany these same 
feelings of filial attachment and love. 

377. Result of the Fall of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alex- 
andria before the Saracens. In the seventh century all the great 
cities of the East fell into the hands of the Mohammedans. 1 This 
was a matter of tremendous consequence for the Church of Rome, 
since in every one of these great capitals there was, or might have 
been, a rival of the Roman bishop. The virtual erasure of Antioch, 
Jerusalem, and Alexandria from the map of Christendom left only 
one city, Constantinople, that could possibly nourish a rival of 
the Roman Church. Thus did the very misfortunes of Christendom 
give an added security to the ever-increasing authority of the 
Roman prelate. 

378. The Popes become Temporal Sovereigns. A dispute 
about the use of images in worship, known in church history as 
the "War of the Iconoclasts," 2 which broke out in the eighth cen- 
tury between the Greek churches of the East and the Latin 
churches of the West, drew after it far-reaching consequences as 
respects the growing power of the Roman pontiffs. Leo the 
Isaurian, who came to the throne of Constantinople a.d. 716, was 
a most zealous iconoclast. The Greek churches of the East having 
been cleared of images, the emperor resolved to clear also the 

1 See Chapter XXXIX. 2 Iconoclast means "image breaker." 



258 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§378 

Latin churches of the West of these "symbols of idolatry." To 
this end he issued a decree that they should not be used. The 
bishop of Rome, Pope Gregory II, not only opposed the execution 
of the edict, but by the ban of excommunication cut off the em- 
peror and all the iconoclastic churches of the East from com- 
munion with the Roman Catholic Church. Though images — 
paintings and mosaics only — were permanently restored in the 
Eastern churches in 842, still by this time other causes of alien- 
ation had arisen, and the breach between the two sections of 
Christendom could not now be closed. The final outcome was 
the permanent separation, in the last half of the eleventh century, 
of the Church of the East from that of the West. 

In this quarrel with the Eastern emperors the Roman bishops 
formed an alliance with the Frankish princes of the Carolingian 
house. Never did allies render themselves more serviceable to each 
other. The popes consecrated the authority and enhanced the 
power and prestige of the Frankish rulers ; these in turn defended 
the popes against all their enemies, imperial and barbarian, and, 
dowering them with cities and provinces, laid the basis of their 
temporal power. 

Such in broad outline was the way in which grew up the 
Papacy, an institution which, far beyond all others, was destined 
to mold the fortunes and direct the activities of Western Christen- 
dom throughout the mediaeval time. 

References. Zimmer, H., The Irish Element in Mediaval Culture (an author- 
itative and interesting account of the services rendered mediaeval civilization 
by the Irish monks). Kingsley, C, The Hertnits. Montalembert (Count de), 
The Monks of the West from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard., 7 vols, (an ardent 
eulogy of monasticism). Wishart, A. W., A Short History of Monks and Mon- 
asteries (the best short account in English). Emerton, E., Introduction to the 
Study of the Middle Ages, chap, ix, " The Rise of the Christian Church." 
ADAMS, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap, vi, " The Formation 
of the Papacy." Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers, chap, ix, " The 
Primacy of Peter," and chap, x, " The Supremacy of the Popes " (an authori- 
tative statement of the Catholic view of these matters). 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON 

379. Introductory. The conversion of the barbarians and the 
development in Western Christendom of the central authority of 
the Papacy prepared the way for the introduction among the 
northern races of the arts and the culture of Rome, and hastened 
in Italy, Spain, and Gaul the fusion into a single people of the 
Latins and the Teutons, of which important matter we shall treat 
in the present chapter. We shall tell how these two races, upon the 
soil of the old Empire in the West, intermingled their blood, their 
languages, their laws, their usages and customs, to form new 
peoples, new tongues, and new institutions. 

380. The Romance Nations. In some districts the barbarian 
invaders and the Roman provincials were kept apart for a long 
time by the bitter antagonism of race and by a sense of injury 
on the one hand and a feeling of disdainful superiority on the 
other. But for the most part the Teutonic intruders and the 
Latin-speaking inhabitants of Italy, Spain, and France very soon 
began freely to mingle their blood by family alliances. 

It is quite impossible to say what proportion the Teutons bore 
to the Romans. Of course the proportion varied in the different 
countries. In none of the countries named, however, was it large 
enough to absorb the Latinized population; on the contrary, the 
barbarians were themselves absorbed, yet not without essentially 
changing the body into which they were incorporated. Thus, 
about the end of the fourth century everything in Italy, 
Spain, and France — dwellings, cities, dress, customs, language, 
laws, soldiers — reminds us of Rome. A little later and a great 
change has taken place. The barbarians have come in. For 
a time we see everywhere, jostling each other in the streets 
and markets, crowding each other in the theaters and courts, 

259 



260 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON [§381 

kneeling together in the churches, the former Romanized subjects 
of the Empire and their uncouth Teutonic conquerors. But by the 
close of the ninth century, to speak in very general terms, the 
two elements have become quite intimately blended, and a cen- 
tury or two later Roman and Teuton have alike disappeared, and 
we are introduced to Italians, Spaniards, and Frenchmen. These 
we call Romance peoples, because at base they are Roman. 

381. The Formation of the Romance Languages. During the 
five centuries of their subjection to Rome, the natives of Spain 
and Gaul forgot their barbarous dialects and came to speak a cor- 
rupt Latin. Now, in exactly the same way that the dialects of 
the Celtic tribes of Gaul and of the Celtiberians of Spain had 
given way to the more refined speech of the Romans, did the 
rude languages of the Teutons yield to the more cultured speech 
of the Roman provincials. In the course of two or three centu- 
ries after their entrance into the Empire, Goths, Lombards, Bur- 
gundians, and Franks had practically dropped their own tongues 
and were using that of the people they had subjected. 

But of course this provincial Latin underwent a great change 
upon the lips of the mixed descendants of the Romans and Teu- 
tons. Owing to the absence of a common popular literature, the 
changes that took place in one country did not exactly correspond 
to those going on in another. Hence, in the course of time, we 
find different dialects springing up, and by about the ninth century 
the Latin has virtually disappeared as a spoken language, and its 
place been usurped by what will be known as the Italian, Spanish, 
and French languages — all more or less resembling the ancient 
Latin, and all called Romance tongues, because children of the 
old Roman speech. 

382. Ordeals. The agencies relied upon by the Teutons to 
ascertain the guilt or innocence of accused persons show in how 
rude a state the administration of justice among them was. One 
very common method of proof was by what were called ordeals, 
in which the question was submitted to the judgment of God. 
Of these the chief were the ordeal by fire, the ordeal by water, 
and the wager of battle. 



§382] 



ORDEALS 



261 



The ordeal by fire consisted in taking in the hand a piece of red- 
hot iron, or in walking blindfolded with bare feet over a row of hot 
ploughshares laid lengthwise at irregular distances. If the person 
escaped unharmed he was held to be innocent. Another way of 
performing the fire ordeal was by running through the flame of 
two fires built close together, or by walking over live brands. 

The ordeal by water 
was of two kinds, by 
hot water and by cold. 
In the hot-water or- 
deal the accused per- 
son thrust his arm 
into boiling water, and 
if no hurt was visible 
upon the arm three 
days after the oper- 
ation, the party was 
considered guiltless. 
In the cold-water trial 
the suspected person 
was thrown into a 
stream or pond ; if he 
floated, he was held 
to be guilty; if he 
sank, innocent. 

The wager of battle 
or trial by combat was 

a solemn judicial duel. 'It was resorted to in the belief that God 
would give victory to the right. Naturally it was a favorite mode 
of trial among a people who found their chief delight in fighting. 
Even religious disputes were sometimes settled in this way. 1 

1 Ordeals are found among all primitive peoples. For proof by ordeal among the 
Hebrews, see Num. v. 11-31 and Josh. vii. 16-18. The combat between David and 
Goliath, being an appeal to the judgment of Heaven, possesses the essential element of 
the judicial duel. We also find an ordeal in the test proposed by Elijah to the prophets 
of Baal, — 1 Kings xviii. 17-40. It was the same among the Greeks. Thus, for instance, 
in Sophocles' Antigone the watchman is made to say, " Prepared we were to take up red- 
hot iron, to walk through fire." 
SA 




Fig. 81. Trial by Combat. (From a manu- 
script of the fifteenth century ; after Lacroix) 



262 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON [§383 

The ordeal was frequently performed by deputy, that is, one 
person for hire or for the sake of friendship would undertake it 
for another ; hence the expression " to go through fire and water 
to serve one." Especially was such substitution common in the 
judicial duel, since women and ecclesiastics were generally for- 
bidden to appear personally in the lists. 

383. The Revival of the Roman Law. Now the barbarian 
law system, if such it can be called, the character of which we 
have merely suggested by the preceding illustrations, gradually 
displaced the Roman law in all those countries where the two sys- 
tems at first existed alongside each other, save in Italy and in 
southern France, where the provincials greatly outnumbered the 
invaders. But the admirable jurisprudence of Rome was eventu- 
ally to assert its superiority. About the close of the eleventh cen- 
tury there was a great revival in the study of the Roman law as 
embodied in the Justinian code, and in the course of a century 
or two this became either the groundwork or a strong modifying 
element in the law systems of almost all the peoples of Europe. 

What took place may be illustrated by reference to the fate 
of the Teutonic languages in Gaul, Italy, and Spain. As the 
barbarian tongues, after maintaining a place in those countries 
for two or three centuries, at length gave place to the superior 
Latin, which became the basis of the new Romance languages, 
so now in the domain of law the barbarian maxims and customs, 
though holding their place longer, likewise finally give way almost 
everywhere, in a greater or less degree, to the more excellent law 
system of the Empire. Rome must fulfill her destiny and give 
laws to the nations. 

References. Emerton, E., Introduction to the Middle Ages, chap, viii, " Ger- 
manic Ideas of Law." Lea, H. C, Superstition and Force : Essays on the Wager 
of Law, the Wager of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture. Munro, D. C, and 
Sellery, G. C, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 310-325. For the spread of the 
Latin speech and the formation of the Romance languages, see Abbott, F. R., 
The Common People of Ancient Rome, pp. 3-31. For the contribution made by 
the Germans to civilization, see Adams, G. B., Civilisation during the Middle 
Ages, chap. v. For the influence of the Roman law upon the law systems of 
Europe, see Hadley, J., Introduction to Roman Law, lect. ii. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST 

384. The Era of Justinian (a.d. 527-565). During the fifty 
years immediately following the fall of Rome, the Eastern em- 
perors struggled hard and sometimes doubtfully to withstand the 
waves of the barbarian inundation which constantly threatened to 
overwhelm Constantinople with the same awful calamities that 
had befallen the imperial city of the West. Had the New Rome — 
the destined refuge for a thousand years of Graeco-Roman learning 
and culture — also gone down at this time before the storm, the 
loss to the cause of civilization would have been incalculable. 

Fortunately, in the year 527, there ascended the Eastern throne 
a prince of unusual ability, to whom fortune gave a general of 
such rare genius that his name has been allotted a place in 
the short list of the great commanders of the .world. Justinian 
was the name of the prince, and Belisarius that of the soldier. 
The sovereign has given name to the period, which is called after 
him the " Era of Justinian." 

385. Justinian as the Restorer of the Empire and "The Law- 
giver of Civilization." One of the most important matters in the 
reign of Justinian is what is termed the " Imperial Restoration," 
by which is meant the recovery from the barbarians of several of 
the provinces of the West upon which they had seized. Africa, 
as we have seen (sect. 356), was first wrested from the Vandals. 
Italy was next recovered from the Goths and again made a part 
of the Roman Empire (a.d. 553). It was governed from Ravenna 
by an imperial officer who bore the title of Exarch. Besides re- 
covering Africa and Italy from the barbarians, Justinian also 
reconquered from the Visigoths the southeastern part of Spain. 

But that which gives Justinian's reign a greater distinction than 
any conferred upon it by the achievements of his generals was 

263 



264 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST 



[§386 



the collection and publication by him of the Corpus Juris Civilis, 
the "Body of the Roman Law." This work embodied all the law 
knowledge of the ancient Romans, and was the most precious 
legacy of Rome to the world. In causing its publication Justin- 
ian earned the title of "The Lawgiver of Civilization." 

Justinian also earned renown as one of the world's greatest 
builders. He rebuilt with increased splendor the Church of Santa 




Imperial Possessions at Opening of Keign. 
Lands reconquered from the Barbarians. 



The Roman Empire under Justinian 



Sophia, which, founded by Constantine the Great, had been 
burned during a riot in his reign. The structure still stands, 
though the cross which originally surmounted the dome was in 
1453 replaced by the Moslem crescent. In its interior decorations 
this edifice is regarded as one of the most beautiful creations of 
Christian art. 

386. The Empire becomes Greek. Less than a generation after 
the death of Justinian, the Arabs, of whom we shall tell in the 
following chapter, entered upon their surprising career of conquest, 
which in a short time completely changed the face of the entire 
East. The conquests of the Arabs cut off from the Empire those 
provinces that had the smallest Greek element, and thus rendered 
the population subject to the Emperor more homogeneous, more 
thoroughly Greek. The Roman element disappeared, and though 
the government still retained the imperial character impressed 



§387] CIVILIZATION AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE 265 

upon it by the conquerors of the world, the court of Constantinople 
became Greek in tone, spirit, and manners. Hence, instead of 
longer applying to the Empire the designation Roman, many his- 
torians from this on call it the Greek or Byzantine Empire. 

387. Services rendered European Civilization by the Roman 
Empire in the East. The later Roman Empire rendered such 
eminent services to the European world that it justly deserves an 
important place in universal history. First, as a military outpost 
it held the Eastern frontier of European civilization for a thousand 
years against Asiatic barbarism. 

Second, it was the keeper for centuries of the treasures of 
ancient civilization and the instructor of the new Western 
nations in law, in government and administration, in literature, 
in painting, in architecture, and in the industrial arts. 1 

Third, it kept alive the imperial ideal, and gave this fruitful 
idea and this molding principle back to the West in the time of 
Charlemagne. Without the later Roman Empire of the East there 
would never have been a Romano-German Empire of the West 
(sect. 399). 

Fourth, it was the teacher of religion and civilization to the 
Slavic races of eastern Europe. Russia forms part of the civilized 
world today largely by virtue of what she received from New 
Rome. 

References. Gibbon, E., Decline and Fall, chaps, xl-xliv (on the reign of 
Justinian ; chap, xliv deals with Roman law). Oman, C. W. C, The Story of 
the Byzantine Empire, chaps, iv-viii ; and The Dark Ages, chaps, v, vi. Hodg- 
kix, T., Italy ami her Invaders, vol. iv, " The Imperial Restoration." Encyc. 
Brit., nth ed., Art. "Justinian I," by James Bryce. Bury, J. B., History of the 
Later Roman Empire, 2 vols, (a work of superior scholarship). Harrison, F., 
Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (a brilliant lecture). The Cambridge 
Medieval History, vol. ii, chaps, i, ii. Seignobos, C, Histon> of Mediceval and 
Modern Civilization, chap. iii. 

1 This instruction was imparted largely through the mediation of the Italian cities, 
and particularly of Venice, which throughout almost all the mediaeval time were in close 
political or commercial relations with Constantinople. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

THE RISE OF ISLAM 

We have seen the Teutonic barbarians of the North descend upon 
the Roman Empire and wrest from it all its provinces in the West. 
We are now to watch a similar attack made upon the Empire by 
the Arabs of the South, and to see wrested from the emperors of 
the East a large part of the lands still remaining under their rule. 

388. The Religious Condition of Arabia before Mohammed. 
Before the reforms of Mohammed the Arabs were idolaters. Their 
holy city was Mecca. Here was the ancient and revered shrine of 
the Kaaba, where was preserved a sacred black stone that was be- 
lieved to have been given by an angel to Abraham. To this shrine 
pilgrimages were made from the most remote parts of Arabia. 

But though polytheism was the prevailing religion of Arabia, 
still there were in the land many followers of other faiths. The 
Jews especially were to be found in some parts of the peninsula in 
great numbers. Through them the Arab teachers had become 
acquainted with the doctrine of one sole God. From the Christian 
converts dwelling among them they had learned something of the 
teachings of Christianity. It was from the Jews and Christians, 
doubtless, that Mohammed learned many of the doctrines that 
he taught. 

389. Mohammed. Mohammed, the great prophet of the Arabs, 
was born in the holy city of Mecca, probably in the year 570 of 
the Christian era. In his early years he was a shepherd and a 
watcher of flocks by night, as the great religious teachers Moses 
and David had been before him. Later he became a merchant 
and a camel driver. 

Mohammed possessed a soul that was early and deeply stirred 
by the contemplation of those themes that ever attract the religious 
mind. He declared that he had visions in which the angel Gabriel 

266 



§ 390] THE HEGIRA 267 

appeared to him and made to him revelations which he was com- 
manded to make known to his fellow men. The essence of the new 
faith which he was to teach was this : There is but one God, and 
Mohammed is his prophet. 

For a considerable time after having received this commission, 
Mohammed endeavored to gain adherents merely by persuasion ; but 
such was the incredulity which he everywhere met, that at the end 
of three years' preaching his disciples numbered only forty persons. 

390. The Hegira (a.d. 622). The teachings of Mohammed at 
last aroused the anger of a powerful party among the guardians of 
the national idols of the Kaaba, and they began to persecute 
Mohammed and his followers. To escape these persecutions Mo- 
hammed fled to the neighboring city of Medina. This Hegira, or 
"flight," as the word signifies, occurred a.d. 622, and was con- 
sidered by the Moslems as such an important event in the history 
of their religion that they adopted it as the beginning of a new 
era, and from it still continue to reckon historical dates. 

His cause being warmly espoused by the inhabitants of Medina, 
Mohammed now assumed along with the character of a lawgiver 
and moral teacher that of a warrior. He declared it to be the will 
of God that the new faith should be spread by the sword. Within 
ten years from the time of the assumption of the sword by 
Mohammed, Mecca had been conquered and the new creed estab- 
lished widely among the independent tribes of Arabia. 

391. The Koran and its Teachings. The doctrines of Moham- 
medanism, or Islam, which means "submission to God," are con- 
tained in the Koran, which is believed by the orthodox to have 
been written from all eternity on tablets in heaven. From time 
to time Mohammed recited to his disciples portions of the 
"heavenly book" as its contents were revealed to him in his 
dreams and visions. These communications were held in the 
"breasts of men," or were written down upon potsherds and the 
ribs of palm leaves. Soon after the death of the prophet these 
scraps of writing were religiously collected, supplemented by tradi- 
tion, and then arranged chiefly according to length. Such was 
the origin of the sacred book of Islam. 



268 THE RISE OF ISLAM [§392 

The fundamental doctrine of Islam is the unity of God: " There 
is no God save Allah" echoes throughout the Koran. To this is 
added the equally binding declaration that " Mohammed is the 
prophet of Allah." 

The Koran inculcates the practice of four cardinal duties. The 
first is prayer ; five times every day must the believer turn his 
face toward Mecca and engage in devotion. The second require- 
ment is almsgiving, or payment of the so-called holy tax. The 
third is keeping the fast of Ramadan, which lasts a whole month, 
throughout which period no food must be eaten during the day. 
The fourth duty is making a pilgrimage to Mecca. Every person 
who can possibly do so is required to make this journey. 

392. The Conquest of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and North 
Africa. For exactly one century after the death of Mohammed 
the caliphs or successors of the prophet 1 were engaged in an almost 
unbroken series of conquests. Persia was subjugated and the 
authority of the Koran was established throughout the land of 
the ancient fireworshipers. Syria was wrested from the Eastern 
Roman Empire and Asia Minor was overrun. Egypt and North 
Africa, the latter just recently delivered from the Vandals, were 
also snatched from the hands of the Byzantine emperors. 

By the conquest of Syria the birthplace of Christianity was lost 
to the Christian world. By the conquest of North Africa, lands 
whose history for a thousand years had been intertwined with that 
of the opposite shores of Europe, and which at one time seemed 
destined to share in the career of freedom and progress opening 
to the peoples of that continent, were drawn back into the fatalism 
and the stagnation of the East. From being an extension of 
Europe they became once more an extension of Asia. 

393. The Invasion of Europe ; the Battle of Tours (a.d.732). 
Thus, in only a little more than fifty years from the death of 
Mohammed his standard had been carried by the lieutenants of his 
successors through Asia to the Hellespont on the one side and 

l Abu-Bekr (a.d. 632-634), Mohammed's father-in-law, was the first caliph. He was 
followed by Omar (a.d. 634-644), Othman (a.d. 644-655), and Ali (a.d. 655-661), all of 
whom fell by the hands of assassins. Ali was the last of the so-called orthodox caliphs. 



§394] THE HEGIRA 269 

across Africa to Spain on the other. At each of these points 
Europe was threatened with invasion. As Draper pictures it, 
the Crescent, lying in a vast semicircle upon the northern shore 
of Africa and the curving coast of Asia, with one horn touching 
the Bosphorus and the other the Strait of Gibraltar, seemed about 
to round to the full and overspread all Europe. 

The first attempt at invasion of the continent was made in 
the East, where the Arabs vainly endeavored to gain control of 
the Bosphorus by wresting Constantinople from the hands of the 
Eastern emperors. Repulsed from Europe at its eastern extremity, 
they succeeded in gaining a foothold in Spain. Roderic, the last 
of the Visigothic kings, was hopelessly defeated in battle, and all 
the peninsula, save some mountainous regions in the northwest, 
quickly submitted to the invaders. By this conquest some of the 
fairest provinces of Spain were lost to Christendom for a period 
of eight hundred years. 

A few years after the conquest of Spain the Saracens crossed the 
Pyrenees and established themselves in Gaul. This advance of 
the Moslems beyond the northern wall of Spain was viewed with 
the greatest alarm by all Christendom. In the year 732 of the. 
Christian era, just one hundred years after the death of the prophet, 
the Franks, under their leader Charles Martel, and their allies met 
the invaders upon the plains of Tours in central Gaul and com- 
mitted to the issue of a single battle the fate of Christendom and 
the future course of history. The Arabs suffered an overwhelming 
defeat and soon withdrew behind the Pyrenees. 

The young Christian civilization of western Europe was thus 
delivered from an appalling danger such as had not threatened 
it since the fearful days of Attila and the Huns (sect. 332). 

394. Golden Age of the Arabian Caliphate. At first the 
caliphs ruled from the city of Medina ; then for almost a hundred 
years (a.d. 661-750) they issued their commands from the city 
of Damascus; later they established their court on the Lower 
Tigris at Bagdad, — the representative of the ancient Babylon, — 
which city for a period of more than five hundred years was a 
brilliant center of Arabian civilization. 



270 THE RISE OF ISLAM [§395 

The golden age of the caliphate of Bagdad covered the latter 
part of the eighth and the ninth century of our era, and was illus- 
trated by the reigns of such princes as Al-Mansur (a.d. 754-775) 
and the renowned Harun-al-Rashid (a.d. 786-809). During 
this period science and philosophy and literature were most 
assiduously cultivated by the Arabian scholars, and the court of 
the caliphs presented in culture and luxury a striking contrast 
to the rude and barbarous courts of the kings and princes of 
Western Christendom. 

395. The Dismemberment of the Caliphate. "At the close of 
the first century of the Hegira," writes Gibbon, "the caliphs were 
the most potent and absolute monarchs of the globe." But in a 
short time the extended empire, through the quarrels of sectaries 
and the ambitions of rival aspirants for the honors of the caliphate, 
was broken in fragments, and from three capitals — from Bagdad 
upon the Tigris, from Cairo upon the Nile, and from Cordova upon 
the Guadalquivir — were issued the commands of three rival 
caliphs, each of whom was regarded by his adherents as the sole 
rightful spiritual and civil successor of Mohammed. All, however, 
held the great prophet in the same reverence, all maintained with 
equal zeal the sacred character of the Koran, and all prayed with 
their faces turned toward the holy city of Mecca. 

396. The Civilization of Arabian Islam. The Saracens were 
co-heirs of antiquity with the Teutonic peoples. They made espe- 
cially their own the scientific accumulations of the ancient civiliza- 
tions and bequeathed them to Christian Europe. From the Greeks 
and the Hindus they received the germs of astronomy, geometry, 
medicine, and other sciences. The scientific writings of Aristotle, 
Euclid, and Galen, and Hindu treatises on astronomy and algebra 
were translated from the Greek and Sanskrit into Arabic, and 
formed the basis of the Arabian studies and investigations. Almost 
all the sciences that thus came into their hands were enriched by 
them, and then transmitted to European scholars. 1 They devised 

1 What Europe received in science from Arabian sources is kept in remembrance by 
such words as alchemy, alcohol, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, azimuth, chemistry, 
elixir, zenith, and nadir. To how great an extent the chief Arabian cities became the man- 
ufacturing centers of the mediaeval world is indicated by the names which these places 



§396] THE HEGIRA 271 

what is known from them as the Arabic or decimal system of no- 
tation, 1 and gave to Europe this indispensable instrument of all 
scientific investigations dependent upon mathematical calculations. 

In the lighter forms of literature — romance and poetry — the 
Arabs produced much that possesses a high degree of excellence. 
The inimitable tales of the Arabian Nights, besides being a valuable 
commentary on Arabian life and manners at the time of the cul- 
mination of oriental culture at the court of Bagdad, form also an 
addition to the imperishable portion of the literature of the world. 

All this literary and scientific activity found expression in the 
establishment of schools and libraries. In all the great cities of 
the Arabian empire, as at Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova, centuries 
before Europe could boast anything beyond cathedral or monastic 
schools, great universities were drawing together vast crowds of 
eager young Moslems and creating an atmosphere of learning 
and refinement. 

In the erection of mosques and other public edifices the Arab 
architects developed a new and striking style of architecture, — 
one of the most beautiful specimens of which is preserved to us in 
the palace of the Moorish kings at Granada, — a style which has 
given to modern builders some of their finest models. 

References. The Koran is our chief source for a knowledge of Islam as 
a religion. The translation by Palmer is the best. Muir, W., The Life of 
Mohammed and The Rise and Decline of Islam (these works are written in an 
unfriendly and unsympathetic spirit). Smith, R. B., Mohammed and Moham- 
medanism (has a short bibliography). Sprenger, A., The Life of Mohammed. 
Irving, W., Mahomet and his Successors. Gibbon, E., The Decline and Fall, 
chaps. 1-lii. Margoliouth, D. S., Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. Free- 
man, E. A., History and Conquests of the Saracens (a rapid sketch by a master). 
Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam and Short Histoiy of the Saracens. 
Poole, S. L., Studies in a Mosque. Encyc. Brit., i ith ed., Arts. " Mahomet," " Ma- 
hommedan Institutions," " Mahommedan Law," " Mahommedan Religion." 
The Cambridge Medieval Histoiy, vol. ii, chaps, x-xii. 

have given to various textile fabrics and other articles. Thus muslin comes from Mosul, on 
the Tigris, damask from Damascus, and gauze from Gaza. Damascus and Toledo blades 
tell of the proficiency of the Arab workmen in metallurgy. 

1 The figures or numerals employed in their system, with the exception of the zero 
symbol, they seem to have borrowed from India. 



CHAPTER XL 

CHARLEMAGNE AND THE RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE 
IN THE WEST 

397. Introductory. We return now to the West. The Franks, 
who with the aid of their confederates withstood the Saracens on 
the field of Tours and saved Europe from subjection to the Koran, 
are the people that first attract our attention. Charlemagne, or 
Charles the Great, their king, second of the Carolingian line 
(sect. 357), is the imposing figure that moves amidst all the events 
of the times,— indeed, is the one who makes the events and renders 
the period an epoch in universal history. 

398. The Wars of Charlemagne. During his long reign of 
nearly half a century Charlemagne so extended the boundaries of 
his dominions that they came to embrace the larger part of western 
Europe. He mad^over fifty military campaigns, among which 
were those against the Lombards, the Saracens, and the Saxons. 

Among the first undertakings of Charlemagne was a campaign 
against the Lombards in Italy, whose king, Desiderius, was 
troubling the Pope. Charlemagne wrested from Desiderius all 
his possessions, shut up the unfortunate king in a monastery, and 
placed on his own head the famous "Iron Crown" 1 of the 
Lombards. 

In the year 778 Charlemagne gathered his warriors for a crusade 
against the Mohammedan Moors in Spain. He crossed the Pyrenees 
and succeeded in winning from the Moslems all the northeastern 
corner of the peninsula. These lands thus regained for Christendom 
he made a part of his dominions, under the title of the Spanish 
March. 2 

1 So called because there was wrought into it what was believed to be one of the 
nails of the cross upon which Christ had suffered, 

2 As Charles was leading his victorious bands back across the Pyrenees, the rear of 
his army, while hemmed in by the walls of the Pass of Roncevalles, was set upon by the 

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§399] THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 273 

But by far the greater number of the campaigns of Charlemagne 
were directed against the still pagan Saxons. These people were 
finally reduced to permanent submission and forced to accept 
Charlemagne as their sovereign and Christianity as their religion. 

399. Restoration of the Empire in the West (a.d. 800). An 
event of seemingly little moment, yet in its influence upon suc- 
ceeding affairs of the very greatest importance, now claims our 
attention. Pope Leo III having called upon Charlemagne for aid 
against a hostile faction at Rome, the king soon appeared in 
person at the capital and punished the disturbers of the peace of 
the Church. The gratitude of Leo led him at this time to make 
a most signal return for the many services of the Frankish king. 
To understand his act a word of explanation is needed. 

For a considerable time a variety of circumstances had been 
fostering a growing feeling of enmity between the Italians and 
the emperors at Constantinople. Just at this time, by the crime 
of the Empress Irene, who had deposed her son, Constantine VI, 
and put out his eyes that she might have his place, the Byzantine 
throne was vacant, in the estimation of the Italians, who con- 
tended that the crown of the Caesars could not be worn by a 
woman. In view of these circumstances Pope Leo and those 
about him conceived the purpose of taking away from the hereti- 
cal and effeminate Greeks the imperial crown and bestowing it 
upon some strong and orthodox and worthy prince in the West. 

Now, among all the Teutonic chiefs of Western Christendom 
there was none who could dispute in claims to the honor with the 
king of the Franks, the representative of a most illustrious house 
and the strongest champion of the young Christianity of the West 
against her pagan foes. Accordingly, as Charlemagne was par- 
ticipating in the solemnities of Christmas Day in the basilica of 
St. Peter at Rome, the Pope approached the kneeling king, and 
placing a crown of gold upon his head proclaimed him Emperor 
and Augustus (a.d. 800). 

wild mountaineers (the Gascons) and cut to pieces before he could give relief. Of the 
details of this event no authentic account has been preserved ; but long afterwards, asso- 
ciated with the fabulous deeds of the hero Roland, it formed a favorite theme of the 
tales and songs of the Trouveurs of northern France. 



274 CHARLEMAGNE [§400 

The intention of Pope Leo was, by a sort of reversal of the act 
of Constantine the Great, to bring back from the East the seat of 
the imperial court ; but what he really accomplished was a restora- 
tion of the line of emperors in the West, which three hundred and 
twenty-four years before had been ended by Odoacer (sect. 335). 

We say this was what he actually effected ; for the Greeks of 
the East, disregarding wholly what the Roman people and the 
Pope had done, maintained their line of emperors just as though 
nothing had occurred in Italy. So now from this time on for cen- 
turies there were, most of the time, two emperors, one in the East 
and another in the West, each claiming to be the rightful successor 
of Caesar Augustus. 

This revival of the Empire in the West was one of the most 
important matters in European history. It gave to the following 
centuries "a great political ideal," which was the counterpart of 
the religious ideal of a universal Church embodied in the Papacy, 
and which was to shape large sections of mediaeval history. 

400. Charles the Great as a Ruler. Charlemagne must not be 
regarded as a warrior merely. His most noteworthy work was 
that which he effected as a legislator and administrator. He ruled 
his Empire with the constant solicitude of a father. The char- 
acter of his government is revealed by his celebrated Capitularies. 
These were not laws proper, but collections of decrees, decisions, 
and instructions covering matters of every kind, civil and religious, 
public and domestic. They show what were Charlemagne's ideas 
of what his chiefs or his subjects needed in the way of advice, 
suggestion, or command. 

Charlemagne, particularly after his coronation as Emperor, exer- 
cised as careful a superintendence over religious as over civil 
affairs. He called synods or councils of the clergy of his domin- 
ions, presided at these meetings, and addressed to abbots and 
bishops fatherly words of admonition, reproof, and exhortation. 

Education was also a matter to which Charlemagne gave zealous 
attention. He was himself from first to last as diligent a student 
as his busy life permitted. He never ceased to be a learner. In 
his old age he tried to learn to write but found that it was too 



§401] THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 275 

late. Distressed by the dense ignorance all about him, he labored 
to instruct his subjects, lay and clerical, by the establishment of 
schools and the multiplication and dissemination of books through 
the agency of the copyists of the monasteries. He invited from 
England the celebrated Alcuin, one of the finest scholars of the 
age, and with his help organized what became known as the Palace 
School, in which his children and courtiers and he himself were 
pupils. 

401. The Death of Charlemagne (814) ; Results of his Reign. 
Charlemagne enjoyed the imperial dignity only fourteen years. He 
died in 814. By the almost universal verdict of students of the 
mediaeval period, he has been pronounced the most imposing per- 
sonage that appears between the fall of Rome and the fifteenth 
century. His greatness has erected an enduring monument for itself 
in his name, the one by which he is best known, — Charlemagne. 

Among the results of the reign of Charlemagne we should note 
at least the two following. First, he did for Germany what Caesar 
did for Gaul, — brought this barbarian land within the pale of 
civilization and made it a part of the new-forming Romano- 
German world. 

Second, he kneaded into something like a homogeneous mass 
the various racial elements composing the mixed society of the 
wide regions over which he ruled. Throughout his long and vigor- 
ous reign that fusion of Roman and Teuton of which we spoke in 
an earlier chapter went on apace. He failed indeed to unite the 
various races of his extended dominions in a permanent political 
union, but he did much to create among them those religious, intel- 
lectual, and social bonds which were never afterwards severed. 
From his time on, as it has been concisely expressed, there was 
a Western Christendom. 

402. Division of the Empire ; the Treaty of Verdun (843). 
Charlemagne was followed by his son Lewis, surnamed the Pious 
(814-840). Upon the death of Lewis fierce contention broke out 
among his surviving sons, Lewis, Charles, and Lothair, and myriads 
of lives were sacrificed in the unnatural strife. Finally, by the 
famous Treaty of Verdun, the Empire was divided as follows : to 



276 CHARLEMAGNE [§402 

Lewis was given the part east of the Rhine, the nucleus of the 
later Germany ; to Charles, the part west of the Rhone and the 
Meuse, one day to become France ; and to Lothair, the narrow 
central strip between these, stretching across Europe from the 
North Sea to the Mediterranean, and including the rich lands of 
the lower Rhine, the valley of the Rhone, and the larger part of 
Italy. To Lothair also was given the imperial title. 

This treaty is celebrated not only because it was the first great 
treaty among the European states, but also on account of its 
marking the divergence from one another, and in some sense the 
origin, of two of the great nations of modern Europe, — Teutonic 
Germany and Romanic France. As shown by the celebrated 
bilingual oath of Strassburg, 1 there had by this time grown up 
in Gaul, through the mixture of the provincial Latin with Ger- 
man elements, a new speech, which was to grow into the French 
tongue, — the firstborn of the Romance languages. 

In the year 962 a strong king of Germany, Otto the Great, again 
revived the Empire (for a generation no one had borne the 
imperial title), which now came to be called the Holy Roman 
Empire. Respecting the great part that the idea of the Empire 
played in subsequent history we shall speak in another volume. 

References. Eginhard (Einhard), Life of the Emperor Karl the Great (trans- 
lation by William Glaister recommended). Einhard was Charles' confidential 
friend and secretary. HODGKIN, T., Charles the Great, and Mombert, J. I., 
History of Charles the Great (the first is the best short biography in English). 
Bryce, J., The Holy Roman Empire, chaps, iv, v (gives a clear view of the 
import of the restoration of the Empire). Emerton, E., Introduction to the 
Middle Ages, chaps, xii-xiv. West, A. F., Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian 
Schools, and MULLINGER, J. B., The Schools of Charles the Great. Adams, G. B., 
Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. vii. The Cambridge Medieval History, 
vol. ii, chaps, xviii, xix, xxi. Davis, II. W. C, Charlemagne. 

1 This was an oath of friendship and mutual fidelity taken by Lewis and Charles 
just before the Treaty of Verdun (in 842). The text of the oath has been preserved 
both in the old German speech and in the new-forming Romance language. It is 
interesting as affording the oldest existing specimens of these languages. 



APPENDIX 



A. SOURCE BOOKS 

Davis, W. S., Readings in Ancient Histoiy, 2 vols. Thallon, I. C, Readings 
in Greek History. Fling, F. M., A Source Book of Greek History. Webster, 
H., Readings in Ancient History. Munro, D. C, A Source Book of Roman 
History. Monroe, P. M., Source Book of the History of Education for the Greek 
and Roman Period. Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, vol. i, 
chaps, i-vii. 

B. TOPICS FOR CLASS REPORTS 

Chapter I. 1. The relation of domesticated animals to man's advance in 
civilization: Shaler, N. S., Domesticated Animals, pp. 103-151; Daven- 
port, E., Domesticated Animals and Plants, chap. i. 2. The making and the 
use of fire: Mason, O. T, The Origin of Invention, chap, iii, and First Steps 
in Human Culture, chaps, i, ii ; Frobenius, L., The Childhood of Man, chap, 
xxvii. 3. The origin of writing : Hoffmann, W. J., The Beginnings of Writ- 
ing; MASON, O. T., First Steps in Human Culture, chap, xxi ; Tylor, E. B., 
Anthropology, chap, vii ; Keary, C. F., The Dawn of Histoiy, chaps, xii, xiii. 
4. The dawn of art : Reinach, S., Apollo, pp. 1-9 ; Parkyn, E. A., Introduc- 
tion to the Study of Prehistoric Art, chaps, iii, iv. 

Chapter II. 1. The unity of the human race: Ratzel, F., The History of 
Mankind, vol. 1, pp. 3-5. 2. Physical characteristics as a basis of classifica- 
tion: Haddon, A. C, The Races of Man and their Distribution, pp. 1-6. 

Chapter III. 1. Characteristics of Egyptian art: Reinach, S., Apollo, 
pp. 17-22. 2. Industrial arts: Maspero, G., Egyptian Archeology, chap. v. 
3. Dwellings of the poor and of the rich : Maspero, G., Egyptian Archeology, 
pp. 2-28. 4. The market and the shops : Maspero, G., Life in Ancient Egypt and 
Assyria, chap. ii. 5. The Tell el-Amarna letters: Breasted, J. H., History of 
Egypt, pp. 332-337, 382-389, 393 ; Ball, C. J., Light from the East, pp. 86-94. 

Chapter IV. 1. French excavations at Tello : Hilprecht, H. V., Explora- 
tions in Bible Lands, pp. 216-260. 2. American excavations at Nippur: 
Peters, J. P., Nippur, vol. ii, chaps, ii-x; Hilprecht, H. V., Explorations in 
Bible Lands, pp. 289-568. 3. The temple archives : Jastrow, M., The Civili- 
zation of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 316-318. 4. Moral maxims and penitential 
psalms: Jastrow, M., The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 464-465, 
469-474. 5. Excavations and discoveries at Nineveh: Layard, A. H., AUneveh 
and its Remains. 6. Assyrian art: Reinach, S., Apollo,^. 23-27. 7. A royal 
hunting adventure: Maspero, M., Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, chap. xiv. 

Chapter V. 1. Israel in Egypt: Petrie, W. M. F., Egypt and Israel, chap. ii. 
2. The Song of Deborah (Judges v) : Schmidt, N., The Message of the Poets, 



ii APPENDIX 

pp. 354-362. 3. Some Hebrew laws concerning the poor and the bondsman : 
Exod. xxii, 25-27; xxiii, 10; Deut. xv, 7-15; xxiv, 6, 10-13. 

Chapter VI. 1. Phoenician commerce and its influence upon the progress 
of civilization : Keller, F., Colonization, pp. 28-30, 38-39. 2. The Tyrian 
purple dye: RAWLINSON, G., The Story of Phoenicia, pp. 5, 6, 275-282. 3. A 
Phoenician adventure — the circumnavigation of Africa: Rawlinson, G., The 
Story of Phoenicia, chap. xii. 4. Croesus and Solon: Herodotus, i, 29-33 (retold 
in Church, Herodotus, pp. 3-10). 

Chapter VII. 1. Persian character and public and private life: Rawlin- 
son, G., Five Great Afonarchies, vol. iii, chap, iii, pp. 164-247. 2. The Royal 
Road from Susa to Sardis : Herodotus, v, 52-54. 3. The Parsees, the modern 
representatives of the ancient fire-worshipers: see Encyc. Brit., vol. xx (nth 
ed.), under " Parsees." 

Chapter VIII. 1. The old Chinese civil-service competition examinations: 
Martin, \V. A. P., The Lore of Cathay, chap, xvii ; Doolittle, J., Social Life 
of the Chinese, chap, xv-xvii. 2. The worship of ancestors and filial piety : 
Martin, W. A. P., The Lore of Cathay, chap, xv; Legge, J., The Religion of 
China, lect. ii, pp. 69-95; Giles, H. A., The Civilization of China, pp. 75-77. 

Chapter IX. 1. The nature and features of the land as factors in Greek 
life and history : Grote, G., History of Greece, vol. ii, pp. 153-157 ; Holm, A., 
History of Greece, vol. i, pp. 29, 30; Abbott, E., History of Greece, vol. i, 
pp. 19-23; Bury, J. B., History of Greece, pp. 4, 5. 2. The marble quarries of 
Paros : Manatt, J. I., /Egean Days, chap, xvii, " Paros the Marble Island." 

Chapter X. 1. Tales of Crete — Minos, Theseus, and Ariadne : Harrison, 
J. A., The Story of Greece, chap. viii. 2. Change in the opinion of scholars in 
regard to the historical elements in Greek legends : Baikie, J., The Sea-kings 
of Crete, chap. i. 3. Summary of excavations and discoveries in Crete : Hall, 
H. R. H., sEgeati Archaeology, chap. ii. 4. The palace at Cnossus : Mosso, A., 
The Palaces of Crete, chaps, iv, v. 5. yEgean art : Mosso, A., The Palaces of 
Crete, chap, xiii ; Hall, H. R. H., sEgean Archeology, chap. vii. 

Chapter XI. 1. Delphi and the oracle : Richardson, R. B., Vacation Days 
in Greece, pp. 24-33. 2 - The Olympic Festival: Gardiner, E. N., Greek Ath- 
letic Sports and Festivals, chap, ix ; Gardner, P., New Chapters in Greek His- 
tory, chap. ix. 3. Gymnastics : Blumner, H., The Home Life of the Ancient 
Greeks, chap. viii. 4. Demeter and Persephone, and the Eleusinian mysteries: 
Frazer, J. G., Spirit of the Corn and of the Wild (The Golden Bough), vol. i, 
chap, ii ; Fairbanks, A., Mythology of Greece and Pome, chap, vi, pp. 1 71-183; 
Gayley, C. M., Classic Myths (consult index). 5. The Greek doctrine of 
"divine envy": consult Herodotus (Rawlinson's trans.) by index under 
" Croesus," " Polycrates," and " Artabanus." 

Chapter XII. 1. Argos and King Pheidon : Holm, A., History of Greece, 
vol. i, chap, xvii, pp. 202-208 ; Bury, J. B., History of Greece, chap, iii, 
pp. 139-144. 2. The Helots of Laconia: Thucydides, iv, 80; Plutarch, 
Lycnrgns, xxvii ; Grote, Histoiy of Greece, vol. ii, chap, vi, pp. 291-298. 

Chapter XIII. 1. The trade of the Pontus, or Euxine : Curtius, E., His- 
tory of Greece, vol. i, pp. 439-441. 2. Relations of a colony to its mother city : 

SA 



APPENDIX iii 

Curtius, E., History of Greece, vol. i, pp. 496-500. 3. The Delphic oracle 
and Greek colonization: Herodotus, iv, 150-153, 156-159; Curtius, E., 
History of Greece, vol. ii, pp. 49, 50. 4. Tales of the tyrants Cypselus, 
Polycrates, and Periander: Herodotus (consult index). 

Chapter XIV. 1. The environment of Athens: Tucker, T. G., Life in 
Ancient Athens, chap. ii. 2. Story of Solon and Croesus : Plutarch, Solon, 
xxvii, xxviii. 3. The Council and the Assembly (Ecclesia) : Tucker, T. G., 
Life in Ancient Athens, chap. xiii. 4. Dwelling houses : Gulick, C. B., The 
Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap. iii. 5. The occupations of farming and herd- 
ing: Gulick, C. B., The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap. xvii. 6. The Athe- 
nian vase trade (" One of the most interesting phenomena in the history of 
ceramic art is the absorption of the market of the world by Attic wares.") : 
The Annual of the British School at Athens, No. xi, pp. 224 ff., " The Distribu- 
tion of Attic Vases"; Fowler, H. N., and Wheeler, J. R., Greek Archceol- 

°gy, PP- 47i~5° 6 - 

Chapter XV. 1. The Delphic oracle given the Athenians at the beginning 
of the Persian War : Herodotus, vii, 140-143. 2. The trireme : Gulick, C. B., 
The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, xv, pp. 199-205. 3. Themistocles in 
council and in battle at Salamis : Plutarch, Themistocles, xi-xv. 

Chapter XVI. 1. The walls of Athens and the Piraeus : Bury, J. B., History 
of Greece, pp. 330-332, 377. 2. Aristides the Just; his ostracism: Harrison, 
J. A., The Story of Greece, pp. 317-321. 3. The public buildings of Athens: 
Reinach, S., Apollo, chap, vi ; Fowler, H. N., and Wheeler, J. R., Greek 
Arch<Eology, pp. 144-150, 155-157. 4. "A Day in Athens": Tucker, T. G., 
Life in Ancient Athens, chaps, vi, vii; Blumner, H., The Home Life of the 
Ancient Greeks, chap, v, pp. 179-201. 5. Trades and manufactures: Gulick, 
C. B., The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, xviii, pp. 227-238. 6. Various classes 
of the population : Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chap. iv. 7. Civic 
duties of citizens: Gulick, C. B., The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap. xvi. 
8. The things seen in a walk about your own city which remind you of the 
contributions of Greece to our civilization. 

Chapter XVII. 1. The Athenian army and navy: Tucker, T. G., Life in 
Ancient Athens, chap. x. 2. The condemnation of the Athenian generals after 
the battle of Arginusae (406 B.C.) : see any comprehensive history of Greece. 
3. " Festivals and the Theaters " : Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, 
chap. xii. 4. " An Athenian trial " : Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, 
chap. xiv. 5. The trial and condemnation of Socrates : Grote, G., History 
of Greece, vol. vii, pp. 140-172. 

Chapter XVIII. 1. The youth and training of Demosthenes: Pickard- 
Cambridge, A- W., Demosthenes, chap. i. 2. Imperialism vs. Home Rule, or, 
Was Demosthenes' policy of opposition to Philip wise ? Mahaffy, J. P., Prob- 
lems in Greek Histoiy, chap, vii, " Practical Politics in the Fourth Century." 
3. Alexander's visit to the oracle of Zeus Ammon : Wheeler, B. I., Alexan- 
der the Great, chap. xxi. 4. Alexander's letter to Darius : Bury, J. B., History 
of Greece, pp. 761, 762. 5. "The Marriage of Europe and Asia": Wheeler, 
B. I., Alexander the Great, chap, xxx, pp. 476-479. 
sa 



iv APPENDIX 

Chapter XIX. i. The Museum and Library at Alexandria: Mahaffy, J. P., 
Greek Life and Thought, chap, ix, pp. 192-197. 2. Rhodes as a center of Hel- 
lenistic culture : Holm, A., History of Greece, vol. iv, chap, xxii ; Mahaffy, 
J. P., Story of Alexander's Empire, chap, xx (last part). 3. The Stoics and the 
Epicureans : Mahaffy, J. P., Survey of Greek Civilization, pp. 256-264. 4. The 
Grove of Daphne at Antioch : Lew Wallace, Ben H117; bk. iv, chaps, v, vi. 

Chapter XX. 1. Greek art as a reflection of Greek history: Gardner, P., 
Principles of Greek Art, chap, xix, " Art in Relation to History." 2. Building 
material and methods : Fowler, H. N., and Wheeler, J. R., Greek Archeol- 
ogy, chap, ii, pp. 96-108. 3. The Great Altar of Zeus Soter at Pergamum : 
Reinach, S., Apollo, pp. 69, 70 ; Fowler, H. N., and Wheeler, J. R., Greek 
Archceology, ' pp. 181-183, 284-286. 4. Attic art: Tucker, T. G., Life in 
Ancient Athens, chap. xvi. 5. Greek painting and mosaic : Fowler, H. N., 
and Wheeler, J. R., Greek Archaology, chap, ix ; Gardner, P., Principles of 
Greek Art, chap. xii. 

Chapter XXI. 1. Sappho: Manatt, J. I., Aegean Days, chap, xxv, " Les- 
bos and the Lesbian Poets." 2. Presentation of a Greek drama at Athens : 
Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chap. xii. 3. Pindar : Mahaffy, J. P., 
Sutvey of Greek Civilization, pp. 91-96. 

Chapter XXII. 1. The life of Socrates: Hopkinson, L. W., Greek Leaders, 
pp. 79-101; Leonard, W. E., Socrates: Master of Life, pp. 31-61. 2. Ex- 
tempore declamations by the Sophists : Walden, J. W. H., The Universities 
of Ancient Greece, chap. xi. 

Chapter XXIII. 1. Greek education: Blumner, H., Home Life of the 
Ancient Greeks, chap, iii ; Gulick, C. B., Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, vii ; 
Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chap. ix. 2. Student days : Walden, 
J. W. H., The Universities of Ancient Greece, chap. xiv. 3. Social life and 
entertainments: Gulick, C.B., Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, xiv ; Tucker, 
T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chap. vii. 4. Greek slavery: Blumner, H., 
Home Life of the Ancie?it Greeks, chap. xv. 5. Funeral customs : Tucker, 
T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, chap. xv. 

Chapter XXIV. 1. Geographical conditions tending to make the history of 
Italy different from that of Greece : Freeman, E. A., Historical Geography 
of Europe, vol. i (text), pp. 7-9. 2. " While the Grecian peninsula is turned 
towards the east, the Italian is turned towards the west" (Mommsen); show 
the influence of this geographical fact on the history of each land. 

Chapter XXV. 1 . The family cult and the patria potestas : Johnston, H. W., 
The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 28-32 ; WlLKlNS, A. S., Roman Antiquities, 
chap. iii. 2. The Roman character : Wilkins, A. S., Roman Antiquities, chap. i. 
3. The position of women : Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of the Romans, 
pp. 64-66. 4. Prehistoric Rome : Lanciani, R., Ancient Rome in the Light of 
Recent Discoveries, chap, ii, " The Foundation and Prehistoric Life of Rome." 

Chapter XXVI. 1. Legend of the Fabii : Livy, ii, 48, 49. 2. Virtues prized 
by the early Romans as shown by the stories of their heroes (Mucius Scaevola, 
Cincinnatus, Lucius Junius Brutus, Marcus Curtius, etc.) : find these tales by 
use of the indexes of available histories. 

SA 



APPENDIX v 

Chapter XXVII. i. Was the action of the Roman Senate in the affair of the 
Caudine Forks honorable? Livy, ix, 2-1 1 ; How, W. W., and Leigh, H. D., 
History of Rome, pp. 108-1 10. 2. Tales of the Pyrrhic War: Plutarch, Pyrrhus. 
3. The system employed by the Roman engineers in tunneling mountains: 
Lanciani, R., Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, pp. 61-62. 

Chapter XXVIII. 1. Hannibal's passage of the Alps: Polybius, iii, 50-56. 
2. The battle of the Metaurus (207 B.C.) : Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of 
the World, chap. iv. 3. Change effected in Roman life and manners through 
contact with corrupt Hellenism : Mommsen, T., vol. ii, bk. iii, chap, xiii, 
pp. 4S0-491 ; Plutarch, Marcus Cato ; Seignobos, C. (Wilde ed.), History of 
Ancient Civilization, chap. xxii. 

Chapter XXIX. 1. Roman slavery: Johnston, H. W., The P?-ivate Life 
of the Romans, chap, v, pp. S7-11 1. 2. Marcus Livius Drusus, the champion of 
the Italians : consult by index any comprehensive history of Rome. 3. Cicero 
and his friends as admirers of things Greek: Mahaffy, J. P., The Greek World 
under Roman Sway, chap. vi. 4. The conspiracy of Catiline: Church, A. J., 
Roman Life in the Days of Ciceiv, chap. vii. 5. Causes of the fall of the 
Republic: How, W. W., and Leigh, H. D., History of Rome, chap, xxxi; 
Seignobos, C. (Wilde ed.), Histoty of Ancietit Civilization, pp. 274-278. 

Chapter XXX. 1. The significance of the defeat of Varus by the Germans 
under Arminius, a.d. 9 : Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of the World, chap. v. 
2. The life of the court under the early Empire : Friedlander, L., Roman 
Life and Manners, vol. i, pp. 70-97. 3. Means of communication : Fried- 
lander, L., Roman Life and Manners, vol. i, pp. 268-322 ; Davis, W. S., The 
Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, pp. 80-105. 

Chapter XXXI. 1. Pompeii and what we have learned of Roman life from 
its remains: Mau, A., Pompeii: its Life and Art. 2. Letters, books, and libra- 
ries: Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 287-298. 3. An 
election campaign in Pompeii : Abbott, F. F., Society and Politics in Ancient 
Rome, pp. 3-21. 4. The Hadrian Wall in Britain: Bruce, J. C, The Roman 
Wall. 5. The spread of Christianity in the first two centuries : Friedlander, 
L., Roman Life and A/anners, vol. iii, chap, ii, pp. 186-214. 6. The cata- 
combs: Lanciani, R., Pagan and Christian Rome, chap. vii. 7. Zenobia, 
"Queen of the East": Wright, W., An Account of Palmy > a and Zenobia. 

Chapter XXXII. 1. Motives underlying the Diocletian persecution of the 
Christians : Mason, A. J., The Persecution of Diocletian, chap. iii. 2. The Council 
of Nicaea : Carr, A., The Church and the Roman Empire, chap. v. 3. The found- 
ing of Constantinople : Oman, C. W. C, The Byzantine Empire, pp. 13-30. 4. Ju- 
lian and the pagan restoration : Carr, A., The Church and the Roman Empire, 
chap, vii ; Gardner. A., Julian the Philosopher, and the last Struggle of Pagan- 
ism against Christianity. 5. Efforts of Diocletian to fix prices of provisions and 
wares: Abbott, F. F., The Common People of Ancient Rome, pp. 145-178. 

Chapter XXXIII. 1. Alaric the Goth: Bradley, H., The Goths, chap, x, 

pp. 84-98. 2. St. Jerome : Carr, A., The Church and the Roman Empire, 

chap. xiv. 3. St. Augustine and his City of God; Carr, A., The Church and 

the Roman Empire, chap, xv ; Cutis, E. L., Saint Augustine, chap, xx, 

sa 



vi APPENDIX 

pp. 184-194; DlLL, S., Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Em- 
pire, pp. 59-73- 4. Causes of the downfall of the Empire in the West: Hodg- 
kin, Seeley, and Bury, as cited above in " References," p. 232 ; Davis, W. S., 
The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, chap. viii. 

Chapter XXXIV. 1. Roman art: Reinach, S., Apollo, pp. 87-94. 2. Edu- 
cation of the Roman boy : Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of the Romans, 
chap. iv. 3. The gladiatorial combats : Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of 
the Romans, pp. 242-264 ; Friedlander, L., Roman Life and Manners, vol. ii, 
chap, i, pp. 41-62. 4. Roman luxury: Friedlander, L., Roman Life and 
Manners, vol. ii, chap, ii; Davis, W. S., The Influence of Wealth in Imperial 
Rome, pp. 152-187. 5. Character and motives of Roman benefactions: 
Abbott, F. F., The Common People of Ancient Rome, pp. 179-204. 

Chapter XXXV. 1. Life and work of Cassiodorus ; his state papers: 
Hodgkin, T., Theodoric, chap, ix, pp. 160-173. 2 - The German conquest of 
Gaul: Adams, G. B., The Growth of the French Nation, chap. ii. 

Chapter XXXVI. 1. The religion of the Germans and their conversion: 
Seignobos, C, History of Mediceval and Moderti Civilization, chap. ii. 2. The 
scriptorium and the labors of the monks as copyists, chroniclers, and authors : 
Putnam, G. H., Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, vol. i, pp. 3-81. 
3. The monasteries as industrial colonies: Cunningham, W., Western Civiliza- 
tion (Mediceval and Modem Times), pp. 35-40. 

Chapter XXXVII. 1. The spread of the Latin speech and the formation 
of the Romance languages : Abbott, F. F., The Common People of Ancient 
Rome, pp. 3-31. 2. The contribution made by the Germans to civilization: 
Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. v. 3. The influence 
of the Roman law upon the law systems of Europe : Hadley, J., Introduction 
to Roman Law, lect. ii. 

Chapter XXXVIII. 1 . Justinian as a builder ; St. Sophia : Oman, C. W. C, 
The Byzantine Empire, chap, viii, pp. 106-111 ; GlBBON, E., Decline and Fall, 
chap, xl (consult table of contents). 2. Introduction into Europe of the silk 
industry: Gibbon, E., Decline and Fall, chap, xl (consult table of contents). 
3. The Hippodrome and the "Blues" and the "Greens": Oman, C. W. C, 
The Byzantine Empire, chap, ii, pp. 22-25 5 chap, vi, pp. 75-80 ; Munro, D. C, 
and SELLERY, G. C, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 87-113. 

Chapter XXXIX. 1. Mohammed: Carlyle, T., Heroes and Hero-worship, 
lect. ii, "The Hero as Prophet." 2. Some teachings of Islam : Gilman, A., The 
Saracens, chap, xv; Seignobos, C.,Histo?y of Medieval and Alodern Civilization, 
chap. iv. 

Chapter XL. 1. Charlemagne and his court: Davis, H. W. C, Charle- 
magne, chap. x. 2. A letter of Charlemagne summoning an abbot with his men to 
a general assembly : Ogg, F. A., A Source Book of Mediceval History, pp. 141-144. 
3. Alcuin and the Palace School : West, A. F., Alcuin and the Rise of the 
Christian Schools, chap. iii. 4. The import of the restoration of the Empire : 
Bkyce, J., The Holy Roman Empire (8th ed.), chaps, iv, v, xxi (a subject for 
the advanced student). 5. The things needed to be done, which Charlemagne 
did: Adams. G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, pp. 154-169. 






INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Note. In the case of words whose correct pronunciation has not seemed 
to be clearly indicated by their accentuation and syllabication, the sounds of 
the letters have been denoted thus : a, like a in gray ; a, like a, only less pro- 
longed ; a, like a in have; a, like a in far; a, like a in all; e, like ee in meet; 
e, like e, only less prolonged; e, like e in end; e, like e in thh-e; e, like e in 
err; i, like i in pine ; 1, like i in pin ; o, like o in «<?/<? ; 6, like <?, only less pro- 
longed ; 6, like o in not ; 6, like o in <?/-3 ; oo, like oo in moon ; do, like <w in 
foot ; u, like u in «.r£ ; ii, like the French u ; ae and ce have the same sound 
as e would have in the same position ; c and ch, like k ; c, like .r ; g, like 
g'mget; g, like/; s, likes; ch, as in German ach; K (small capital), like ck in Ger- 
man ich ; n, like ni in minion ; h denotes the nasal sound in French, being 
similar to tig in song. 



Abraham, Hebrew patriarch, 35 
Abu Bekr (a'boo bek'r), first caliph, 

268 n. 1 
A ehae'a, Roman province, 117 
A ehae'an League, 116 
A chae'ans, 56 
A ehiries, 60 

Acropolis, the, at Athens, 79 
Ac'ti um (ak'shi um), battle of, 198 
JE ge'an civilization, the term, how 

used, 57 n. 1. See Contents 
^Egean Sea, islands in, 55 
M gos pot'a mi, capture of Athenian 

fleet at, 103 
JE o'li ans, the, 56 
JE'o lus, 65 n. 1 
vE'qui ans, 161 
^Es'ehy lus, tragic poet, 130 
JF. to'li an League, 116 
Africa, North, recovery of, by Jus- 
tinian, 246 ; conquest of, by the 

Arabs, 268 
Ag a mem'non, 60 
Ah'ri man, 46 

A hu'ra Maz'da. See Ormazd 
Al'a ric, first invasion of Italy, 225; 

wrings ransom from Rome, 226; 

sacks the city, 226 ; death, 227 
Al ci bi'a des, 101, 102, 103 
Alcuin (al'kwin), 275 
Alexander the Great, 109-114 
Alexandria, in Egypt, 112 
Alexandrian Age, literature of, 133 



Alexandrian Library, 118 

Ali (a/le), caliph, 268 n. 1 

Al'li a, battle of the, 164 

Almansur (al man soor'), caliph, 270 

Alphabet, the Semitic, origin of, 10 ; 

disseminated by the Phoenicians, 41 
Al phe'us, river, 54 
Ambrose, bishop, 223 
Amphitheaters, shows of, 240-242 
Am'y tis, 33 n. 1 
A nab'a sis, 132 

A na'cre on or A nac're on, 128 
An ax ag'o ras, 135 
Ancestor worship, among the Ro- 
mans, 150 
Anchorites, 252 
Andalusia (an da lu'she a), origin of 

the name, 227 
Anglo-Saxons, conquest of Britain, 

228. See England 
Angro Mainyus (an'gromln'yoos). 

See Ahriman 
An to ni'nus Pi'us, Roman emperor, 

21 1 
Antony, Mark, the triumvir, 196, 197, 

199 
A pel'les, Greek painter, 126 
Ap'en nines, 147 
Aph'ro di'te, goddess, 65 
Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, 19 
A poc'ry pha, 38 

A pol'lo, his oracle at Delphi, 65 
Appian Way. See Via Appia 



Vlll 



INDEX 



Apulia, 146 

Aqueducts, Roman, 234 

Arabian Nights, 2-ji 

Arabic system of notation, 271 n. 1 

Arabs, 271. See Moham?nedanism 

Ar be'la, battle of, 112 

Ar ca'di a, geography of, 53 

Ar ca'di ans, 53 

Ar ca'di us, Roman emperor of the 

East, 224 
Ar chi me'des, the mathematician, 140 
Architecture, Egyptian, 22 ; Greek, 

119-126; Roman, 233-235 
Arehons at Athens, 79 
A re op'a gus, council of the, 79 
Ar'go lis, description of, 53 
Ar'go nauts, the, 59 
Ar is tar'chus, the astronomer, 140 
Ar isti'des, 87, 88 
A ris'ti on, stele of, 123 
A ris to gi'ton, Athenian tyrannicide, 

82 
Ar is toph'a nes, comic poet, 131 
Ar'is tot le, life and works, 137 
Art us, 220 n. 2 
Ar min'ius, 203 
Ar'y ans, 14 
Assyrian Empire, rise of, 26 ; political 

history, 29, 30; civilization, 31, 32 
Astrology among the Babylonians, 28 
Astronomy, among the Egyptians, 22 ; 

among the Babylonians, 29 
Athanasius (ath a na'shi us), 220 n. 2 
A the'na, goddess, 65 
Athenian Empire, 92-97 
Athens, history of, up to the Persian 

Wars, 79-84 ; her fall (404 B.C.), 103 
A'thos or Ath'os, Mount, 86 
Attica, 79 
At'ti la, 229 
Au'fi dus, river, 176 
Augurs, College of, 156 
Au'gus tine, his mission to Britain, 250 
Augustine, St. See St. Augustine 
Augustus Caesar. See Octavius 
Au re'li us, Marcus, Roman emperor, 

reign, 211; his Meditations, 2 1 1 
Aus'pi ces, taking of the, 156 

Babylon, rise of, 26 ; fall of, 34 
Babylonian Empire, political history, 

26 ; civilization, 27-29 
Bactria, conquest of, by Alexander, 

"3 



Bagdad, founded, 269 

Baluchistan (bal 00 chls tan'), 113 

Barca. See Hamilcar 

Baths. See Thermce 

Bede (bed), the Venerable, 250 n. 1 

Behistun (ba his toon') Rock, 43 

Bel 1 sa'ri us, general, 263 

Benedictines, order of the, founded 
by St. Benedict, 253 

Bceotia (be o'shi a), 52 

Bosphorus (bos'fo rus), the, 74 

Bot'ta, M., 31 

Brah'ma, 48 

Brahmans, 48 

Bren'nus, Gallic leader, 164 

Britain, Anglo-Saxon conquest of, 247. 
See England 

Brut'ti um, 146 

Brutus, Marcus, 196 

Buddha (bbod'ha), 48 

Buddhism, 48, 49 

Bu sen ti'nus, river, 227 

Byzantine Empire. See Eastern Em- 
pire 

Byzantium (bi zan'shi um), founding 
of, 74. See Constantinople 

Cad'mus, 58 

Caesar, Augustus. See Octavius 

Caesar, Gaius Julius, 190, 191-196 

Caesarion (seza'reon), 198 

Ca la'bri a, 146 

Calendar, Egyptian, 23 ; Babylonian, 
29; Julian, 195; Gregorian, 195 n. 1 

Caliphate of Bagdad, 269, 270 

Cam bu'ni an Mountains, 54 

Cam by'ses, 43 

Campagna (kam pan'ya), 234 

Cam pa'ni a, 146 

Campus Martius (mar'shlus), 158 

Can'nae, battle of, 176 

Cap'i to line hill, 154 

Ca'pre ae, island, 206 

Car o lin'gi an family, beginning of, 
247 

Carthage, 172. See Punic Wars 

Cassiterides (kas i ter'i dez), 40 n. 1 

Cas'si us, Gaius, conspirator, 196 

Caste, Hindu system of, 47 

Catacombs, Roman, refuge of per- 
secuted Christians, 217 

Cathay (katha'). See China 

Cat i ll'na, Lu'ci us Ser'gius, 190 

Catiline. SeeCW///«# 



INDEX 



IX 



Cato, Marcus Porcius, the Censor, 179 

Ca tul'lus, poet, 235 

Cavaliers, 471 

Cayster (ka is'ter), river, 42 

Ce cro'pi a, nucleus of Athens, 58 

(^e'erops, 58 

Celts, at opening of the Middle Ages, 
248; Christianity among, 250, 251 

-Chaer o ne'a, battle of, no 

-Chal cid'i ce, the name, 74 

-Ghal'cis, colonies of, 74 

-Chaldaean Empire, 33 

Chalons (sha loh'), battle of, 229 

Champollion (sham pori on), 19 

-Cha'res, Greek sculptor, 125 

Charlemagne (shar'le man), king of 
the Franks, 272, 275 

-Che'ops, 16 

China, early history, 49-51 

Chinese, writing, 49 ; literature, 50 ; 
competitive examinations, 51 

-Ghl'os, island, 55 

Christ, birth, 204 ; crucifixion, 206 

Christianity, made in effect state re- 
ligion by Constantine, 219; effects 
upon, of imperial patronage, 220 ; 
one of the most vital elements in 
the Empire, 222 ; heresy and idola- 
try suppressed by Theodosius and 
Gratian, 223 ; influence in suppress- 
ing the gladiatorial combats, 225 ; 
as factor in mediaeval history, 248 ; 
introduced among the Teutonic 
tribes, 249-251. See Christians 

Christians, persecution of, under 
Nero, 207 ; under Marcus Aurelius, 
211 5 motives of these persecutions, 
211; persecutions under Diocle- 
tian, 217 ; status under Julian, 221 

Church, early constitution of, 252; 
separation of the Eastern from the 
Western or Latin Church, 257, 258. 
See Papacy 

Church Councils: Council of Nicaea, 
220 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, First Oration 
against Catiline, 190; proscribed, 
197 ; as an orator, 236 

Cimon, son of Miltiades, 94 

Cin cin na'tus, legend of, 161 

Circus, games of the, 240 

Citizenship, Roman, privileges of, 
1 53 ; demanded by the Italians, 184 ; 
secured by them as result of the 



Social War, 184; Caesar's liberality 
in conferring, upon provincials, 195 

City-state, the Greek, 62, 63 ; Rome 
as a, 152 

Clan. See Gens 

Cleopatra, 198 n. 2, 199 n. 1 

Clients, dependents of the Roman 
family, 151 

Clis'the nes, reforms of, 83 

Clo'vis, king of the Franks, 247 

Cnossus (nos'us), Cretan city, 59 

Codes : Justinian Code, 238 

Colonies, Greek, 73-76; Latin, 170, 
171 ; Roman, 170 

Col os se'um, 233 

Co mitia centnriata, 158 

Comitia curiata, 152 

Co mi'ti urn, 157 

Confucius, Chinese sage, 50 

Constantine VI, Eastern emperor, 273 

Constantinople, founded, 220; be- 
sieged by Saracens, 269 

Consuls, Roman, first, 159 

Cor cy'ra, island, 55 

Cor'dS va, 271 

Cor fin'i um, 184 

Corinth, destroyed by Romans, 117 

Corinthia, description of, 53 

Corn, free distribution of, at Rome, 

243 
Cor ne'li a, mother of the Gracchi, 183 
Cor'pns Ju'ris Civi'lis, 238 
Crassus, Marcus Licinius, 191, 192 
Crete, in Greek legend, 55, 58 
Crce'sus, king of Lydia, 43 
Cuneiform writing, 27 
Curia, in early Rome, 152 
Cyc'la des, the, 55 
Cyclopes (si klo'pez), the, 65 n. 1 
Cyn'ics, the, 139 n. 1 
£yr e na'i ca, 76 
Qy re'ne, 76 
£yrus the Great, 34, 42 
(^yrus the Younger, 105 

Dacia, reduced to a Roman province 

by Trajan, 210 
Darius I, 43 ; expeditions against 

Greece, 86 
David, king of the Hebrews, 36 
De cem'virs, 162-164 
De'los, Confederacy of, 92 
Delos, island, 55 
Delphi, temple at, 120 



INDEX 



Delphian oracle, the, 65 ; its services 
in Greek colonization, 74 n. 1 ; mes- 
sage to the Athenians at time of 
Persian Wars, 90 ; oracle given 
Spartans at beginning of Pelopon- 
nesian War, 98 

Demosthenes, no, 132 

Des i de'ri us, king of Lombards, 272 

Di cas'ter ies, Athenian, description 

of. 95 ' 
Dictator, Roman, his powers, 159 
DI o cle'tian, Roman emperor, 2 1 5-2 1 8 
Di og' e nes, the Cynic, 139 n. 1 
Di 6 ny'sus, 65 n. 1 ; Theater of, at 

Athens, 122 
Divination, 155 
Domestication, of animals, 8 ; of 

plants, 9 
Dorians, conquer the Peloponnesus, 

69 
Draco, his code, 80 
Drama, the Attic, origin of, 1 29 
Dra vid'i ans, 47 n. 2 

Eastern Empire, 263-265 

Ec cle'§i a, at Athens, 79 

Education, Chinese, 51 ; Greek, 141 ; 
Roman, 239 ; at Sparta, 7 1 

Eg'bert, king of Wessex, 248 

Egypt, political history, 15-18; civi- 
lization, 18-23 ; under the Ptole- 
mies, 117 

Elgin (el'gin), Lord, 124 n. 1 

E'lis, description of, 54 

England, origin of name, 247 ; Anglo- 

A Saxon conquest, 247 

E pam i non'das, 107, 108 

Eph i al'tes, Greek traitor, 89 

Eph'ors, the, at Sparta, 70 

Ep ic te'tus, the Stoic, 237 

Ep i cu'rus, 139 

E pi'rus, district of, 52 

Eridu (a'ridoo), city, 25 

Erinyes (e rin'i ez), the, 65 n. 1 

E tru'ri a, 146 

Etrus'cans, 147, 148 

Eu bce'a, island, 55 

Eu'clid, the mathematician, 139 

Eumenides (u men'i dez), the, 65 n. 1 

Euphrates, valley of the, 24 

Eu rip'i des, tragic poet, 130 

Eu ro'tas, river, 54 

Euxine (uk'sin) Sea, Greek colonies 
on, 75 



Fabius Maximus, Quintus, " the De- 
layer," 174, 175 

Family, the Roman, 150, 151 

Fasces (fas'sez), the, 152 

Fetiales. See Heralds 

Fire, origin of its use, 7 

Fire-worshipers, 46 

Forum, Roman, in time of the kings, 1 57 

Franks, from first settlement in Gaul, 
202 ; under the Merovingians, 247 ; 
their conversion, 249 

Ga'des, 40 

Gale'rius, Roman emperor, 218 
Gal'li a Cis al pi'na, origin of name, 146 
Gaul, conquest of, by Caesar, 191. See 

Gauls 
Gauls sack Rome, 164 
Gau'ta ma. See Buddha 
Ge dro'si a, 113 

Geiseric (gl'zer ik), Vandal leader, 230 
Gens (clan), the, in early Rome, 152 
German tribes. See Teutons 
Gideon, Hebrew judge, 35 
Gladiatorial combats, given by Augus- 
tus, 203 ; their suppression, 225 ; atti- 
tude of Christians toward, 225 ; gen- 
eral description of the shows, 240-242 
Gladiators, war of the, 188 
Gordian knot, 111 n. 1 
Goths, Eastern. See Ostrogoths 
Goths, Western. See Visigoths 
Grac'ehus, Gaius, 183 
Gracchus, Tiberius, 182, 183 
Gra nl'cus, battle of, in 
Great Wall, the Chinese, 51 n. 2 
Grecian games, influence of, 67 
Greece, geography of, 52-56 
Greek Empire. See Eastern Empire 
Greeks, their legends, 57-61 ; inheri- 
tance of, 62-68. See Hellenes 
Guadalquivir (gwa dal kever'), river, 270 
Guebers (ge'bers). See Fire-worshipers 
Gy lip'pus, Spartan general, 102 

Hades (ha'dez), 64 

Hadrian, Roman emperor, reign, 210 

Hadrian Wall in Britain, 210 

Ha mil'car Barca, Carthaginian gen- 
eral, 174 

Hamites, 14 

Hammurabi (ham moo ra'be), Baby- 
lonian king, 28 ; his code, 28 

Hanging gardens of Babylon, 33 n. 1 



INDEX 



XI 



Hannibal, 174-177 

Har mo'di us, Athenian tyrannicide, 82 

Harun-al-Rashid (ha roon'al ra shed' 

or ha roon'al rash'id), caliph, 270 
Has'dru bal, brother of Hannibal, 176 
Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar, 174 
Hebrews, the, 35-38 
Hegira (he ji'ra<?r hej'i ra), the, 247 
Hel'i con, Mount, 54 
Hel'las, term defined, 52 
Hel le'nes or Hel'lenes, 52, 56. See 

Greeks 
Hellenistic culture, 115 
Hel'les pont, the, 74 
He'lots, the, at Sparta, 70 
Hep'tar chy, Saxon, 248 
He'ra, 65 
Her'a cles, 58 
Heralds, College of, 156 
Her cu la'ne um, 209 
Hermann. See Arminius 
He rod'o tus, 131 
He'si od, 128 

Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 18 n. 1 
Hip par'chus, astronomer, 140 
Hipparehus, Athenian tyrant, 82 
Hip'pi as, 82 
Hittites, the, 17 
Holy Roman Empire, name attaches 

to Western Empire, 276 
Homeric poems, 68, 127 
Ho no'ri us, Roman emperor, 224 
Horace, poet, 203, 235 
Hor ten'si us, jurist, 236 
Huns, drive Goths across the Danube, 

222 ; defeated at Chalons, 229 
Hy mer'tus, Mount, 54 

Iconoclastic controversy, 257 

Il'i os. See Trojan War 

India, early history, 47 

Infanticide, among the Greeks, 14m. 1 

Iona (I o'na or e o'na), monastery, 251 

I onia, cities of , revolt against Persians, 85 

Ionian Islands, the, 55 

Iran (e ran'), plateau of, 42 

Ireland, conversion of, 250 

Irene (i re'ne or I ren'), Eastern 

empress, 273 
Islam. See Mohammedanism 
Israel, kingdom of, 37 
Is'sus, battle of, 112 
Isthmian games, the, 67 
Italian allies. See Social War 



Italians, branches of, 148 
I tal'i ca. See Corfininm 
Italy, divisions of, 146; its early in- 
habitants, 147-149 

Ja'nus, Roman deity, 155 
Japanese, racial relationship, 13 
Jeph'thah, Hebrew hero, 35 
Jerusalem, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 

37 ; taken by Titus, 208 
Josephus, historian, 38 
Jovian, Roman emperor, 221 
Judah, kingdom of, 37 
Judgment of the Dead, in Egyptian 

theology, 21 
Julian the Apostate, reign, 221 
Ju li a'nus, Did'i us, 214 
Jupiter, 154 
Jus tin'i an, his reign, 263 ; his code, 

238, 264 

Kaaba (ka'ba or ka'a ba), the, 266 
Khufu. See Cheops 
Ko'ran, the, 267 

Lac e dae'mon, 54 

La co'ni a, geography of, 54 

La oc'o on, the, 125 

La'res, cult, 223 

Latin colonies. See Colonies 

Latin League, 149. See Latins 

Latins, ethnic relationship, 149; re- 
volt of Latin towns in 340 B.C., 167 ; 
how treated by Rome after the Latin 
War, 167 

La'ti um, 146 

Lem'nos, island, 55 

Leo the Great, pope, turns Attila 
back, 229 ; intercedes for Rome 
with Geiseric, 230 

Leo the Isaurian, 257 

Le on'i das, king of Sparta, 89 

Lepidus, Marcus /Emilius, the tri- 
umvir, 197, 198 

Les'bos, island, 55 

Leuc'tra, battle of, 106 

Licinian laws, 165 

Li cin'i us, Gaius, tribune, 165 

Lictors, attendants of the Roman 
king, 152; consular, 159 

Li gu'ri a, 146 

Literature, Hebrew, 37 ; Chinese, 50 ; 
Greek, 127-133 ; Roman, 235-239 

Livy, historian, 236 



Xll 



INDEX 



Lombards, kingdom of the, 247 ; de- 
stroyed by Charles the Great, 272 

Long Walls at Athens, 94 ; their dem- 
olition by the Peloponnesians, 104 

Lo thair', emperor of H. R. E., 276 

Lu ca'ni a, 146 

Lucretius (lu kre'shl us), poet, 235 

Luxury, Roman, 242 

Lyce'um, the, at Athens, 82 

Ly cur'gus, legend of, 70 

Lydia, the land, 42 ; conquered by 
Cyrus the Great, 43 

Ly san'der, Spartan general, 104 

Mac'ca bees, the, 37 

Macedonia, under Philip II, 109; 
after Alexander's death, 116 

Mae ce'nas, patron of literature, 203 

Magna Graecia, the name, 75 ; colo- 
nies of, 75 

Ma'go, brother of Hannibal, 176 

Man ti ne'a, battle of (362 B.C.), 108 

Mar'a thon, battle of, 86, 87 

Mar do'ni us, Persian general, 90 

Ma'ri us, Gaius, is proscribed, 186; 
massacres the aristocrats, 186 

Mars, Roman god of war, 155 

Marsic War. See Social War 

Massilia (masil'Ta), founded, 76 

Max im'i an, Roman emperor, 218 

Mec'ca, 266 

Medes, the, 42 

Medicine, science of, among the Egyp- 
tians, 23 

Medina (me de'na), 267 

Men e la'us, 60 

Merovingians, Franks under, 247 

Mer'o wig, 247 n. 1 

Mesopotamia, 24 n. 2 

Mes sa'na, Greek colony, 72 

Mes se'ni an Wars, 72 

Metaurus, river, battle of the, 176 

Mil trades, 86 

Milvian Bridge, battle at, 218 

Mi'nos, king of Crete, 55, 58 

Mith ra da'tes VI, the Great, king of 
Pontus, 186, 189 

Mohammed, 266, 267 

Mohammedanism, rise of, 266-271 ; 
under earlier caliphs, 268 

Monasticism, 252, 254 

Monks. See Monasticism 

Monte Cassino (mon'ta kas se'no), 
monastery, 253 



Moses, Hebrew lawgiver, 35 

Mosul (mo'sool), 31 

Municipal system, Roman, 166. See 

Municipia 
Mu ni cip'i a, Roman, 167 
My ce'nae, 53, 61 n. 1 
Mycenaean Age, 57 n. 1 

Nab o ni'dus, king of Babylon, 34 

Nab o po las'sar, 33 

Nau'cra tis, founded, 76 

Nax'os, secedes from the Delian 

League, 93 
Neb u chad nez'zar II, 33 
Ne'me a, 67 

Nemean games, the, 67 
Nem'e sis, 65 n. 1 

Neolithic Age. See Stone Age, A T ew 
Nero, Roman emperor, 207 
Nerva, Roman emperor, 209 
Ni cae'a, church council at, 220 
Nic'i as, Athenian general, 103 
Nin'e veh, 26, 30 

Octavius, Gaius, opposes Antony, 
197 ; enters the Second Trium- 

_ virate, 197 ; his reign, 200-204 

O d5 a'cer, 231 

O dys'seus, 60, 61 

Od'ys sey. See Homeric poems 

O lym'pi a, location of, 54 ; temple of 
Zeus Olympius at, 121 

O lym'pi ad, the term, 66 

Olympian Council, the, 64 

Olympian games, the, 66; revival of, 
68 n. 1 ; influence upon Greek sculp- 
ture, 67, 123 

O lym'pus, Mount, 54 

O'mar, caliph, 268 n. 1 

Oracles among the Greeks, 65. See 
Delphian oracle 

Oratory, Greek, 132 ; Roman, 236 

Ordeals, among the Teutons, 260- 
262 

Or'mazd, 46 

O si'ris, Egyptian deity, 19 

Os'sa, Mount, 54 

Ostracism, 83, 84 n. 1 

Ostrogoths, cross the Danube, 223 ; 
Kingdom of the, 245 

Oth man', caliph, 268 n. 1 

Otto I, the Great, restores the Em- 
pire, 276 

Ov'id, poet, 203, 235 



INDEX 



Xlll 



Pa'dus. See Po 

Painting, Greek, 125 

Paleolithic Age. See Stone Age, 
Old 

Palestine (pal'es tin), 35-37 

Papacy, claims of primacy by the 
Roman bishops, 255; circumstances 
that favored growth, 255-258; ori- 
gin of its temporal authority, 257 

Papyrus paper, 18 

Pa/ a his, Athenian state ship, 104 

Par nas'sus, Mount, 54 

Parthenon, the, 121; sculptures of, 
124 n. 1 

Pa'terfa mil'i as, power of, 1 50 

Patricians, term explained, 154 

Patricius (pa trish'i us). See St. Patrick 

Pau sa'ni as, his treason, 92 

Pe'li on, Mount, 54 

Pel o pon ne'sian War, 98-105 

Pel o pon ne'sus, the name, 52 ; con- 
quered by the Dorians, 69 

Pe'lops, 52 

Pe na'tes, Roman household gods, 
worship interdicted, 223 

Pen tel'i cus, Mount, 54 

Per'ga mum {or Pergamus), center of 
Hellenistic culture, 117 n. 1 

Per i an'der, 134 n. 1 

Per'i cles, 94-97 ; funeral oration of, 
99 ; his death, 10 1 

Per i ce'ci, the, in Laconia, 70 

Per sep'o lis, destroyed by Alexander, 

113 

Persian Empire, political history, 42- 
44 ; nature of government, 45 ; 
wars with Greece, 85-91; conquered 
by Alexander the Great, n 1-1 13 

Phalanx, Macedonian, 109 n. 2 

Pharaoh (fa'ro), the name, 16 

Pha'ros. the, at Alexandria, 118 

Phar'sa lus, battle of, 194 

Phid'i as, his masterpieces, 124 

Phi dip'pi des, Greek runner, 86 

Philip II, king of Macedon, 109, 1 10 

Phi lip'pl, bat: : e at, 198 

Philistines (fT lis'tinz), 35 

Phi'lo, 38 

Pho'cis, district of Greece, 52 

Phce'bus. See Apollo 

Phoenicia (fe nish'i a), 39 

Phoenicians, 39-41 

Pi ce'num, 146 

Pindar, 128 



Pi rae'us, the, fortified by Themis- 
tocles, 94 

Pirates, in the Mediterranean, 188 

Pi sis'tra tus, tyrant of Athens, 82 

Pla tae'a, battle of, 91 

Plato, life and works, 136 

Plautus, dramatist, 235 

Plebeians (pie be'yans), their status 
in early Rome, 154; significance 
to them of the Servian reforms, 
158; first secession, 159; secure 
admission to the consulship, 165 

Pliny the Elder, 209 

Plu'tareh, 133 

Po, river, 147 

Po lyb'i us, historian, 133 

Pol yg no'tus, painter, 126 

Po lyx'e na, daughter of Priam, 126 

Pompeii (pom pe'yl or pom pa'yee) 
destroyed, 209 n. 1 

Pompey, Gnae'us, the Great, 189, 190, 
191, 193, 194 

Pontifex Maximus, 156 

Pontiffs, College of, 156 

Pontus, state in Asia Minor, 116 n. 1 

Popes : Leo I, the Great, 224, 225 ; 
Gregory I, 250; Leo III, 273 

Po sei'don, 64 

Pot i dae'a, revolt of, against A thens, 98 

Praetorian guard, corps created by 
Augustus, 206 n. 1 ; disbanded by 
Septimius Severus, 214 

Prax it'e les, 124 

Prop y lae'a, the, 95 

Provinces, Roman, government of, 
reformed by Augustus, 202 ; condi- 
tion of, under the Antonines, 212 

Ptol'e my, Claudius, astronomer, 140 

Ptolemy I, Soter, 117 

Public lands, Roman, 182 

Punic War, First, 172; Second, 174- 
177 ; Third, 179 

Pyramids, the, 16; as tombs, 17 

Pyr'rhus, 169 

Ty thag'o ras, 134 

Pyth'i a, the, 65 

Pythian games, 67 

Ra, Egyptian deity, 19 
Races of mankind, 12-14 
Ra me'ses II, 17 ; mummy of, 20 
Re ho bo'am, 36 

Rhodes, center of Hellenistic culture, 
1 16 n. 1 ; school of sculpture at, 125 



XIV 



INDEX 



Rd'land, paladin, 272 n. 2 

Roman colonies. See Colonies 

Roman Empire, definitely established 
by Augustus, 200-202 ; greatest ex- 
tent under Trajan, 210; sale of, by 
the pretorians, 213; its final division, 
224; fall of the, in the West, 231 ; 
restored by Charlemagne, 273 ; re- 
newed by Otto the Great, 276. See 
Eastern Empire and Holy Roman 
Empire 

Roman law, -238, 262 

Roman roads, 171 

Romance languages, 260 

Romance nations, 259 

Rome, early society and government, 
1 50-1 56 ; under the kings, 1 57, 1 58 ; 
sacked by the Gauls, 164; com- 
pared with Carthage, 172 ; sacked 
by Alaric, 226; sacked by the Van- 
dals, 230 

Rom'u lus, king of Rome, 157 

Romulus Augustus, last emperor of 
the West, 231 

Roncesvalles (ron se vaTles ; Sp. ron- 
thes val'yes), Pass of, 272 n. 2 

Rosetta Stone, the, 19 

Ros'tra, 163 

Rubicon, river, 184 ; crossed by. 
Caesar, 193 

Sabbath, adopted as day of rest by 

Constantine, 220 
Sa gun'tum, taken by Hannibal, 174 
St. Augustine, Aurelius, 238 
St. Benedict, 253 

St. Boniface (bon'e fass). See Win/rid 
St. Jerome, 237 
St. Patrick, 250 
St. Peter, 207, 255 
Sal'a mis, battle of, 90 
Sallust, historian, 236 
Samaria, captured by Sargon II, 37 
Samnite Wars, 168 
Sappho (saf'o), 128 
Sar'a cus, king of Nineveh, 30 
Sar'dis, capital of Lydia, 42 
Sar'gon I, 26 
Sar'gon II, 30 
Schliemann (shle'man), Dr., 60, 61 

n. 1 
Scipio, Publius Cornelius (Africanus 

Major), defeats Hannibal at Zama, 

177 



Scipio, Publius Cornelius yEmilianus 
(Africanus Minor), 179 

Scriptorium, 254 

Sculpture, Greek, 123-125 

Se ja/nus, 206 

Se leu'ci das, kingdom of the, 117 

Se leu'cus Ni ca'tor, 1 17 

Senate, Roman, under the kings, 152 ; 
number of senators reduced to six 
hundred by Augustus, 202 

Sen'e ca, moralist, Nero's tutor, 207 ; 
his teachings, 237 

Sen nach'e rib, 30 

Sep'tu a gint, the, 133 

Servile War, First, 181 

Servius Tullius, his reforms, 158 

Sesostris. See Rameses II 

Seven Hills, the, of Rome, 157 

Seven Sages, the, 134 

Sib'yl line Books, 155 

Sicilian expedition, the, 102 

Sicily, Greek colonies in, 76; at the 
beginning of the First Punic War,i 73 

Sidon, 39 

Siwah (see'wa), oasis of, 112 

Slavery, among the Greeks, 145 ; in 
early Rome, 151; general state- 
ments respecting, 243 

Social War, 183; comments upon 
results, 184 

Socrates, his trial and death, 106; his 
teachings, 136 

Sog di a'na, 1 13 

Solomon, king of the Hebrews, 36 

So'lon, 81 

Sophists, the, 135 

Soph'o cles, tragic poet, 130 

Spain, conquest of, by Saracens, 269 

Sparta, early history, 69-72 

Spar'ta cus, leader of gladiators, 188 

Spartan supremacy (404-371 B.C.), 
105-108 

Spor'a des, the, 55 

Sta'di um (//. stadia), 122 

Stil'i cho, Roman general (Vandal 
born), 225, 228 

Stoics, the, 138 

Stone Age, New, 5 ; Old, 2-5 

Strasburg (Ger. Strassburg; Fr. Stras- 
bourg), oath of, 276 

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, given com- 
mand against Mithradates, 1S6; his 
proscriptions, 187 ; made dictator, 
188 ; his abdication and death, 188 



INDEX 



xv 



Su'ni um, cape, 96 
Susa, taken by Alexander, 113 
Syr/a ris, founded, 76 
Symposium, the, features of, 144 
Syracuse, founded, 76 ; in the Pelo- 

ponnesian War, 102 
Syria, made a Roman province, 117 

Tacitus, historian, 237 

Tal'mud, 38 

Taras. See Tarentitm 

Tarentum, Greek colony, 75; war 
with Rome, 169 

TarquiniusSuperbus, king of Rome, 158 

Tar'ta rus, in Greek myth, 64 

Te lem'achus, monk, 226 

Ten Thousand, the, 105 

Ter'ence, dramatist, 235 

Teutons, migrations, 227 ; kingdoms 
established by, 245-248 ; their con- 
version, 249-251 ; fusion with the 
Latins, 259-262 

Tha'les, 134 

Theaters, Grecian, description of, 122; 
entertainments of, 143 ; Roman, 
233 ; entertainments of, 240 

Theban supremacy, 108 

Thebes, in Greece, seized by the 
Spartans, 107 ; hegemony of, 108 

The mis'to cles, his naval policy, 87; in- 
terprets the oracle of the " wooden 
walls," 90 

The oc'ri tus, poet, 133 

The od'o ric,king of the Ostrogoths, 250 

Theodosius (the 6 do'shi us) I, the 
Great, Roman emperor, 223 

Ther'mae, Roman, 234 

Ther mop'y lae, battle of, 88 

Theseus (the'siis), king of Athens, 79 

Thes'sa ly, description of, 52 

The'tes, 81 

Thor, German deity, 250 

Thu cyd'i des, the historian, 131 

Tiber, river, 147 

Tiberius, Roman emperor, 206 

Tigris, valley of the, 24 

Ti'mon, the misanthrope, 101 

Ti'ryns, 53 

Titus, Roman emperor, 209 

Tours (toor), battle of, 273 

Trajan, Roman emperor, 209 

Transmigration, Hindu doctrine of, 4S 

Tri bo'ni an, Roman jurist, 23S 

Trib'unes, plebeian, first, 160 



Triumph, last, at Rome, 225 
Triumvirate, First, 190; Second, 196 
Trojan War, legend of, 60 
Twelve Tables, the, 162-164 
Tyne (tin), the, 210 
Ty'phon, 19 

Tyrants, the Greek Age of, 77, 78 
Tyre, 39 

Umbria, 146 

Valens, Roman emperor, 222 n. 1 

Val en tin'i an I, Roman emperor, 222 
n. 1 

Vandals, kingdom of the, in Spain, 
227; in Africa, 227; sack Rome, 
230 ; destroyed by Belisarius, 246 

Vedas (ve'daz or va'daz), sacred books 
of the Hindus, 48 

Veii (ve'yi), 166 

Venice, its beginnings, 229 

Verdun', Treaty of, 275 

Vergil, 203, 235 

Vespasian (ves pa'zhi an), Flavius, 
Roman emperor, 208 

Vesta, worship of, at Rome, 155 

ITa Ap'pia, construction begun, 169 

Vin do bo'na, 212 

Vis'i goths, cross the Danube, 222 ; 
reduced to submission by Theo- 
dosius, 223; invade Italy, 225; 
second invasion, 226; establish 
kingdom in Spain, 256 

Volscians (voTshl anz), 161 

Win'frid, apostle of Germany, 251 

Wo'den, German god, 250 

Woman, social position of, in Greece, 

143 ; at Rome, 239 
Writing, invention of, 9-1 1 ; Egyptian 

system, iS ; Chinese, 49 

Xen'o phon, 106, 132 
Xerxes (zerk'sez) I, 44 ; invades 
Greece, 88 

Voke, symbol of submission, 162 n. 1 

Za'ma, battle at, 176 
Zend- A ves'ta, 45 
Ze'n5, the Stoic, 138 
Zeus (zus), 64 
Z5'di ac, 29 
Zo ro as'ter, 45 



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